Understanding Swale Placement for Controlled Water Flow
Case studies highlighting successful residential foundation repair projects involving expansive clay
Explanation of what a swale is and how it functions to control and direct water flow. Timely foundation crack repair service prevents costly long-term damage foundation wall repair service building code.
Certainly!
A swale is a shallow, vegetated ditch designed to capture, slow down, and direct water flow across the landscape. Essentially, it acts as a natural water management system. Unlike traditional drainage solutions that aim to remove water as quickly as possible, swales work in harmony with the environment by encouraging water infiltration into the soil.
The functionality of a swale is rooted in its design. Typically, a swale is constructed with a gentle slope and is wider at the top than at the bottom, creating a U-shaped cross-section. This design maximizes the surface area exposed to water, allowing for greater absorption. When rainwater or runoff enters a swale, it's slowed down significantly. This reduction in speed allows more water to soak into the soil, replenishing groundwater supplies and reducing the risk of erosion and flooding downstream.
Vegetation plays a crucial role in the effectiveness of swales. Plants with deep root systems are often chosen for swale plantings because their roots help to stabilize the soil, further preventing erosion. Additionally, the vegetation enhances water filtration as it absorbs nutrients and pollutants from the water, improving water quality before it either infiltrates the ground or continues its journey to other water bodies.
In terms of placement, swales should be strategically located to intercept water at its source or as close to the source as possible. This might mean placing them along contours on a slope to capture runoff or at the edge of impervious surfaces like driveways or patios. The goal is to maximize the amount of water that can be absorbed by the landscape, reducing the burden on municipal stormwater systems and promoting a healthier, more sustainable water cycle.
In summary, swales are a brilliant example of working with nature rather than against it. By understanding and carefully planning their placement, we can effectively manage water flow, enhance soil health, and contribute to the overall well-being of our environments.
Discussion of the benefits of using swales for residential foundation repair services, including erosion prevention and water management.
When it comes to residential foundation repair services, one innovative and effective solution gaining traction is the use of swales. A swale is a shallow, vegetated channel designed to slow down and absorb water, providing numerous benefits that extend beyond simple water management.
First and foremost, swales are instrumental in preventing erosion. In residential areas, heavy rainfall can lead to soil erosion, which not only destabilizes the foundation of homes but also leads to the loss of valuable topsoil. By redirecting water flow, swales help to minimize this erosion. The vegetation within the swale holds the soil in place with its roots, further reinforcing the stability of the land. This natural barrier helps in maintaining the integrity of the residential foundation, thereby reducing the need for frequent repairs.
Water management is another significant benefit of using swales. In urban and suburban settings, stormwater runoff can overwhelm drainage systems, leading to flooding and water damage. Swales act as natural buffers, absorbing excess water and allowing it to infiltrate the ground slowly. This reduces the volume of water entering storm drains, alleviating pressure on municipal drainage systems. Moreover, the gradual absorption of water helps in recharging groundwater supplies, contributing to a more sustainable water cycle.
Additionally, swales enhance the aesthetic and ecological value of residential properties. When designed with native plants, they can become beautiful landscape features that attract wildlife and improve biodiversity. This not only adds to the visual appeal of the property but also fosters a healthier ecosystem.
In conclusion, incorporating swales into residential foundation repair services offers a multifaceted approach to addressing erosion and water management challenges. By leveraging the natural capabilities of swales, homeowners can enjoy a more stable foundation, reduced erosion, improved water management, and enhanced ecological benefits, making it a worthwhile investment for any residential property.
Overview of the factors to consider when planning swale placement, such as soil type, slope, and existing drainage patterns.
When planning the placement of swales for controlled water flow, several crucial factors must be considered to ensure their effectiveness and sustainability. These factors include soil type, slope, and existing drainage patterns.
Firstly, soil type plays a significant role in determining the suitability of a location for swale construction. Different soil types have varying capacities to absorb and retain water. For instance, sandy soils drain quickly and may not be ideal for swales aimed at water retention. Conversely, clay soils retain water well but may require careful design to prevent waterlogging. Understanding the soil composition helps in designing swales that enhance water infiltration and reduce runoff.
Secondly, the slope of the land is another critical factor. Swales are typically constructed contour-following, meaning they run parallel to the natural slope of the land. The gradient of the slope affects the flow of water into and through the swale. On steeper slopes, swales need to be closer together to manage the rapid flow of water effectively. On gentler slopes, swales can be spaced further apart. Additionally, the slope influences the depth and width of the swale, as steeper slopes may require deeper swales to capture more water.
Lastly, existing drainage patterns must be thoroughly assessed before planning swale placement. Understanding where water naturally flows on the landscape helps in positioning swales to intercept and redirect this flow efficiently. This consideration prevents the swales from being overwhelmed during heavy rains and ensures they contribute to the overall water management strategy of the area. Additionally, identifying natural drainage points can help in designing swales that work in harmony with the existing landscape, enhancing their effectiveness.
In conclusion, careful consideration of soil type, slope, and existing drainage patterns is essential when planning swale placement. These factors not only influence the design and effectiveness of swales but also ensure they integrate seamlessly with the natural environment, promoting sustainable water management and soil conservation.
Step-by-step guide on how to design and install a swale for optimal water flow control around a residential foundation.
Sure, here's a step-by-step guide on how to design and install a swale for optimal water flow control around a residential foundation:
---
Designing and installing a swale around your home is a smart way to manage water flow and protect your foundation from potential damage. Follow these steps to ensure your swale is effective and properly installed.
1. **Assess the Terrain**: Begin by evaluating the landscape around your home. Identify where water naturally collects or flows during heavy rains. Look for low spots or areas where water pools, as these are prime locations for swale installation.
2. **Plan the Swale Layout**: Using a measuring tape, mark the areas where you plan to dig the swale. Typically, a swale should be dug on the contour line-where the land is level-to maximize water capture. The swale should be positioned at least 10 feet away from your foundation to prevent water from seeping into the basement.
3. **Determine Swale Dimensions**: A standard swale is about 18 inches deep and 2-3 feet wide at the top, tapering to a point at the bottom. The depth can vary depending on the slope and soil type. Ensure the swale is deep enough to hold the volume of water you expect it to manage.
4. **Excavate the Swale**: Using a shovel or excavator, begin digging along the marked contour line. Remove the topsoil and set it aside for backfilling later. Aim for a gentle slope on both sides of the swale to encourage water to flow into it naturally.
5. **Line the Swale (Optional)**: If you're concerned about soil erosion or want to enhance water infiltration, consider lining the swale with landscape fabric or a geotextile membrane. This will help prevent soil from washing away while allowing water to permeate through.
6. **Install Drainage Structures**: To ensure efficient water flow, incorporate drainage structures such as perforated pipes or gravel-filled trenches at the bottom of the swale. These will help direct water away from your foundation and towards a designated discharge area, such as a dry well or storm drain.
7. **Backfill and Shape**: Once the swale is excavated and any drainage structures are in place, begin backfilling with the topsoil you set aside. Shape the swale so that it has a slight crown in the center to facilitate water flow. Use a rake to smooth out the surface.
8. **Plant Vegetation**: To stabilize the swale and enhance its aesthetic appeal, plant native grasses, shrubs, or ground cover along the swale. Choose plants that are drought-tolerant and can handle periodic flooding. This vegetation will help bind the soil and reduce erosion.
9. **Maintain the Swale**: Regular maintenance is crucial to ensure your swale remains effective. Check for any blockages in the drainage structures, remove debris, and monitor plant growth. Trim back any overgrown vegetation to prevent it from obstructing water flow.
By following these steps, you can design and install a swale that effectively controls water flow around your residential foundation, protecting your home from water damage and enhancing the overall landscape.
Case studies or examples of successful swale installations in residential settings for foundation repair.
Certainly!
Understanding the effective placement of swales in residential settings for foundation repair is crucial for homeowners looking to manage water flow around their properties. Swales, which are shallow, vegetated ditches, play a pivotal role in directing water away from foundations, thereby preventing water damage and erosion. Let's delve into some case studies and examples of successful swale installations that highlight their benefits and effectiveness.
One notable example is the case of a suburban home in the Pacific Northwest, where heavy rainfall was causing significant issues with the foundation. The homeowners decided to install a swale system along the perimeter of their property. The swale was designed with a gentle slope, leading water away from the house and towards a designated drainage area. Over time, this system effectively reduced water accumulation around the foundation, significantly mitigating the risk of water damage. Additionally, the vegetation within the swale absorbed excess water, further enhancing its effectiveness.
Another compelling case study comes from a residential area in the Midwest, where a series of homes were experiencing foundation issues due to poor water drainage. A community-wide initiative was launched to install swale systems across multiple properties. The swales were strategically placed to intercept rainwater before it could reach the foundations. This collective approach not only improved individual properties but also enhanced the overall water management of the neighborhood. The success of this project was evident in the reduced instances of foundation repairs and the improved landscape aesthetics.
In a more urban setting, a townhouse complex in the Northeast faced challenges with water pooling near the foundations during heavy rains. The management company decided to implement a swale system integrated with rain gardens. These rain gardens, which are essentially enhanced swales with specific plant selections, provided additional water absorption and filtration. The results were remarkable; not only did the swales prevent water from undermining the foundations, but they also contributed to a more sustainable urban environment by reducing stormwater runoff.
These examples underscore the importance of understanding swale placement for controlled water flow. When designed and installed correctly, swales can be a highly effective solution for foundation repair and water management in residential settings. They offer a natural, aesthetically pleasing alternative to traditional drainage systems, while also providing environmental benefits such as water filtration and habitat creation. For homeowners considering swale installation, these case studies serve as valuable illustrations of the potential benefits and successful outcomes that can be achieved with thoughtful planning and execution.
Tips for maintaining and monitoring swales to ensure they continue to effectively manage water flow and protect the foundation.
Certainly! Maintaining and monitoring swales is crucial to ensure their effectiveness in managing water flow and safeguarding the foundation of a property. Here are some practical tips to keep your swales in top condition.
Firstly, regular inspections are key. Check your swales at least once a month, especially after heavy rains, to look for any signs of erosion, sedimentation, or blockages. Clearing out debris such as leaves, branches, and other obstructions is essential to maintain smooth water flow. This not only helps in preventing water from backing up but also ensures that the swale continues to function as intended.
Another important aspect is to monitor the vegetation within and around the swale. Healthy vegetation plays a vital role in stabilizing the soil and enhancing water infiltration. Ensure that the plants are thriving and replace any that may have died. Additionally, avoid planting invasive species that could outcompete native plants and disrupt the ecosystem.
It's also beneficial to create a buffer zone around the swale. This can be achieved by planting a mix of grasses, shrubs, and trees that help in absorbing excess water and reducing runoff. The buffer zone acts as an additional layer of protection, enhancing the swale's ability to manage water flow effectively.
Lastly, consider the impact of human activities on the swale. Avoid compacting the soil around the swale by minimizing foot traffic and vehicle use in the area. Compacted soil can reduce water infiltration and compromise the swale's functionality.
By following these tips, you can ensure that your swales remain effective in controlling water flow and protecting your foundation for years to come. Regular maintenance and mindful monitoring are the keys to successful swale management.
About Chicago metropolitan area
Metropolitan area in the United States
"Chicagoland" redirects here. For other uses, see Chicagoland (disambiguation).
Conurbation in the United States
Chicago metropolitan area
Conurbation
Chicago–Naperville, IL–IN–WI
Combined Statistical Area
From top, left to right: Chicago skyline from Lakefront Trail at Northerly Island during sunrise, aerial view Evanston, view of Gold Coast, Downtown Naperville, view of Downtown Aurora
Map of Chicago–Naperville, IL–IN–WI CSA
Chicago–Naperville–Schaumburg, IL
Elgin, IL Metropolitan Division
Lake County, IL Metropolitan Division
Lake County–Porter County–Jasper Cty, IN
Other Statistical Areas in the Chicago CSA
Kenosha, WI MSA
Ottawa, IL µSA
Michigan City–La Porte, IN MSA
Kankakee, IL MSA
City of Chicago
Chicago–Naperville–Elgin, IL–IN MSA
Country United StatesStates Illinois Indiana WisconsinCore cityChicagoSatellite cities
- Aurora
- Elgin
- Crystal Lake
- Joliet
- Naperville
- Schaumburg
- Waukegan
- Kankakee
- Gary
- Hammond
- Michigan City
- Kenosha
Area
• Metro
10,856 sq mi (28,120 km2)Highest elevation
[1]
673 ft (205 m)Lowest elevation
[1]
579 ft (176 m)Population
• Density886/sq mi (342/km2) • Metropolitan Statistical Area (MSA) (2022)
9,441,957[2] (3rd) • Combined Statistical Area (CSA) (2022)
9,806,184 [3] (4th)DemonymChicagolanderGDP
[4]
• Metropolitan Statistical Area (MSA)$894.862 billion (2023) • Combined Statistical Area (CSA)$919.229 billion (2023)Time zoneUTC−6 (CST) • Summer (DST)UTC−5 (CDT)Area codes219, 224/847, 262, 312/872, 331/630, 574, 464/708, 773/872 and 779/815
The Chicago metropolitan area, also referred to as Chicagoland, is the largest metropolitan statistical area in the U.S. state of Illinois, and the Midwest, containing the City of Chicago along with its surrounding suburbs and satellite cities. Encompassing 10,286 square mi (28,120 km2), the metropolitan area includes the city of Chicago, its suburbs and hinterland, that span 13 counties across northeast Illinois and northwest Indiana. The MSA had a 2020 census population of 9,618,502 and the combined statistical area, which spans 19 counties and additionally extends into southeast Wisconsin, had a population of nearly 10 million people.[5][6] The Chicago area is the third-largest metropolitan area in the United States and the fourth-largest metropolitan area in North America (after Mexico City, New York City, and Los Angeles), and the largest in the Great Lakes megalopolis. Its urban area is one of the 40 largest in the world.
According to the 2020 census, the metropolitan's population is approaching the 10 million mark. The metropolitan area has seen a substantial increase of Latin American residents on top of its already large Latino population, and the Asian American population also increased according to the 2020 Census. The metro area has a large number of White, Black, Latino, Asian, and Arab American residents, and also has Native American residents in the region, making the Chicago metropolitan area population truly diverse. The Chicago metropolitan area represents about 3 percent of the entire US population.
Chicagoland has one of the world's largest and most diversified economies. With more than six million full and part-time employees, the Chicago metropolitan area is a key factor of the Illinois economy, as the state has an annual GDP of over $1 trillion.[7] The Chicago metropolitan area generated an annual gross regional product (GRP) of approximately $700 billion in 2018.[8] The region is home to more than 400 major corporate headquarters, including 31 in the Fortune 500[9] such as McDonald's, United, and Blue Cross Blue Shield. With many companies moving to Chicagoland, and many current companies expanding, the area ranked as the nation's top metropolitan area for corporation relocations and expansions for nine consecutive years, the most consecutive years for any region in the country.[10]
The Chicago area is home to a number of the nation's leading research universities including the University of Chicago, Northwestern University, the University of Illinois at Chicago, DePaul University, Loyola University, and the Illinois Institute of Technology (IIT). The University of Chicago and Northwestern University are consistently ranked as two of the best universities in the world.
There are many transportation options around the region. Chicagoland has three separate rail networks; the Chicago Transit Authority (CTA), Metra, and the South Shore Line. The CTA operates elevated and subway lines that run primarily throughout the city, Downtown Chicago, and into some suburbs. The CTA operates some of its rail lines 24 hours a day, every day of the year, nonstop service, making Chicago, New York City, and Copenhagen the only three cities in the world to offer some 24 hour rail service running nonstop, everyday throughout their city limits. The Metra commuter rail network runs numerous lines between Downtown Chicago and suburban/satellite cities, with one line stretching to Kenosha, Wisconsin, which is part of the Chicago metropolitan area. The interurban South Shore Line runs between Downtown Chicago and the northwest Indiana portion of the metropolitan area. In addition, Amtrak operates Union Station in Downtown Chicago as one of its largest rail hubs, with numerous lines radiating to and from the station.
CTA bus routes serve the city proper, with some service into the suburbs. Pace bus routes serve the suburbs, with some service into the city. In addition, numerous CTA bus routes operate 24 hours a day, nonstop.
Definitions
[edit]
Chicago Metropolitan statistical area
[edit]
The Chicago–Naperville, IL–IN–WI Combined Statistical Area as defined by the U.S. Office of Management and Budget:
Chicago–Naperville–Elgin, IL–IN–WI MSA
Michigan City–La Porte, IN MSA
Kankakee, IL MSA
Ottawa, IL MSA
The Chicago metropolitan statistical area (MSA) was originally designated by the United States Census Bureau in 1950. It comprised the Illinois counties of Cook, DuPage, Kane, Lake and Will, along with Lake County in Indiana. As surrounding counties saw an increase in their population densities and the number of their residents employed within Cook County, they met Census criteria to be added to the MSA. The Chicago MSA, now defined by the U.S. Office of Management and Budget (OMB) as the Chicago–Naperville–Elgin, IL–IN–WI Metropolitan Statistical Area, is the third-largest MSA by population in the United States. The 2022 census estimate for the population of the MSA was 9,441,957.[11]
The Chicago MSA is further subdivided into four metropolitan divisions. A breakdown of the county constituents and 2021 estimated populations of the four metropolitan divisions of the MSA are as follows:[11]
Chicago–Naperville–Elgin, IL–IN–WI Metropolitan Statistical Area (9,509,934)
Chicago–Naperville–Schaumburg, IL Metropolitan Division (7,159,394)
Cook County, Illinois (5,173,146)
DuPage County, Illinois (924,885)
Grundy County, Illinois (52,989)
McHenry County, Illinois (311,122)
Will County, Illinois (697,252)
Elgin, IL Metropolitan Division (750,869)
DeKalb County, Illinois (100,414)
Kane County, Illinois (515,588)
Kendall County, Illinois (134,867)
Lake County, IL Metropolitan Division (711,239)
Lake County, Illinois (711,239)
Lake County–Porter County–Jasper County, IN Metropolitan Division (719,700)
Jasper County, Indiana (33,091)
Lake County, Indiana (498,558)
Newton County, Indiana (13,808)
Porter County, Indiana (174,243)
Combined statistical area
[edit]
The OMB also defines a slightly larger region as a combined statistical area (CSA). The Chicago–Naperville, IL–IN–WI Combined Statistical Area combines the following core-based statistical areas, listed with their 2021 estimated populations. The combined statistical area as a whole had a population of 9,806,184 as of 2022.[11]
Chicago–Naperville–Elgin, IL–IN–WI metropolitan statistical area (9,509,934)
Kankakee, IL metropolitan statistical area (106,601)
Kankakee County, Illinois (106,601)
Michigan City–La Porte, IN metropolitan statistical area (112,390)
LaPorte County, Indiana (112,390)
Ottawa, IL micropolitan statistical area (147,414)
Bureau County, Illinois (32,883)
LaSalle County, Illinois (108,965)
Putnam County, Illinois (5,566)
United Nations' Chicago urban agglomeration
[edit]
The Chicago urban agglomeration, according to the United Nations World Urbanization Prospects report (2023 revision), lists a population of 8,937,000.[12] The term "urban agglomeration" refers to the population contained within the contours of a contiguous territory inhabited at urban density levels. It usually incorporates the population in a city, plus that in the contiguous urban, or built-up area.
Chicagoland
[edit]
Chicagoland by county and state[13]A map of Chicagoland in relation to the states of Wisconsin, Illinois, and Indiana
Chicagoland is an informal name for the Chicago metropolitan area. The term Chicagoland has no official definition, and the region is often considered to include areas beyond the corresponding MSA, as well as portions of the greater CSA.[citation needed]
Colonel Robert R. McCormick, editor and publisher of the Chicago Tribune, usually gets credit for placing the term in common use.[14][15] McCormick's conception of Chicagoland stretched all the way to nearby parts of four states (Indiana, Wisconsin, Michigan, and Iowa).[14] The first usage was in the Tribune's July 27, 1926, front page headline, "Chicagoland's Shrines: A Tour of Discoveries", for an article by reporter James O'Donnell Bennett.[16] He stated that Chicagoland comprised everything in a 200-mile (320 km) radius in every direction and reported on many different places in the area. The Tribune was the dominant newspaper in a vast area stretching to the west of the city, and that hinterland was closely tied to the metropolis by rail lines and commercial links.[17]
Today, the Chicago Tribune's usage includes the city of Chicago, the rest of Cook County, eight nearby Illinois counties (Lake, McHenry, DuPage, Kane, Kendall, Grundy, Will, and Kankakee), and the two Indiana counties of Lake and Porter.[18] Illinois Department of Tourism literature uses Chicagoland for suburbs in Cook, Lake, DuPage, Kane, and Will counties,[19] treating the city separately. The Chicagoland Chamber of Commerce defines it as all of Cook, DuPage, Kane, Lake, McHenry, and Will counties.[20]
In addition, company marketing programs such as Construction Data Company's[21] "Chicago and Vicinity" region and the Chicago Automobile Trade Association's "Chicagoland and Northwest Indiana" advertising campaign are directed at the MSA itself, as well as LaSalle, Winnebago (Rockford), Boone, and Ogle counties in Illinois, in addition to Jasper, Newton, and La Porte counties in Indiana and Kenosha, Racine, and Walworth counties in Wisconsin, and even as far northeast as Berrien County, Michigan. The region is part of the Great Lakes Megalopolis, containing an estimated 54 million people.[citation needed]
Collar counties
[edit]
The term "collar counties" is a colloquialism for the five counties (DuPage, Kane, Lake, McHenry, and Will) of Illinois that border Chicago's Cook County. After Cook County, they are also the next five most populous counties in the state. According to the Encyclopedia of Chicago, there is no specifically known origin of the phrase, but it has been commonly used among policy makers, urban planners, and in the media. However, it also notes that as growth has spread beyond these counties, it may have lost some of its usefulness.[22]
Chicago Metropolitan Agency for Planning
[edit]
Main article: Chicago Metropolitan Agency for Planning
Chicago Metropolitan Agency for Planning (CMAP) is an Illinois state agency responsible for transportation infrastructure, land use, and long-term economic development planning for the areas under its jurisdiction within Illinois.[23] The planning area has a population of over 8 million, which includes the following locations in Illinois:[24]
Cook County
DuPage County
Kane County
Kendall County
Lake County
McHenry County
Will County
Panorama of North Avenue Beach
Geography and environment
[edit]
Further information: Geography of Chicago
The city of Chicago lies in the Chicago Plain, a flat and broad area characterized by little topographical relief. The few low hills are sand ridges. North of the Chicago Plain, steep bluffs and ravines run alongside Lake Michigan.
Along the southern shore of the Chicago Plain, sand dunes run alongside the lake. The tallest dunes reach up to near 200 feet (61 m) and are found in Indiana Dunes National Park. Surrounding the low plain are bands of moraines in the south and west suburbs. These areas are higher and hillier than the Chicago Plain. A continental divide, separating the Mississippi River watershed from that of the Great Lakes and Saint Lawrence River, runs through the Chicago area.
A 2012 survey of the urban trees and forests in the seven county Illinois section of the Chicago area found that 21% of the land is covered by the tree and shrub canopy, made up of about 157,142,000 trees. The five most common tree species are buckthorn, green ash, boxelder, black cherry, and American elm. These resources perform important functions in carbon storage, water recycling, and energy saving.[25][26]
Night aerial view of Chicago and vicinity
Demographics
[edit]
Taken from the ISS on June 23, 2022; downtown Chicago is at the center by the lake.
As of 2022, the metropolitan area had a population of 9,442,159. The population density was 1,312.3 per square mile. The racial makeup was 50.1% Non-Hispanic White, 23.4% were Hispanic, 15.5% were Non-Hispanic African Americans, 7.2% were Asian, 0.1% were Non-Hispanic Native American, 0.4% identified as “some other race,” and 3.2% were non-Hispanic multiracial.[27]
According to 2022 estimates from the American Community Survey, the largest ancestries in the Chicago metro area were Mexican (18%), African (17.7%), German (12.8%), Irish (9.9%), Polish (8%), Italian (5.9%), English (5.2%), Indian (2.7%), Puerto Rican (2.3%), Filipino (1.7%), Swedish (1.5%), and Chinese (1.4%).[28][29][30][31]
The suburbs, surrounded by easily annexed flat ground, have been expanding at a tremendous rate since the early 1960s. Aurora, Elgin, Joliet, and Naperville are noteworthy for being four of the few boomburbs outside the Sun Belt, West Coast and Mountain States regions, and exurban Kendall County ranked as the fastest-growing county (among counties with a population greater than 10,000) in the United States between the years 2000 and 2007.[32]
Settlement patterns in the Chicago metropolitan area tend to follow those in the city proper: the northern and northwestern suburbs are generally affluent and upper-middle class, while the southern suburbs (sometimes known as Chicago Southland) have somewhat lower median incomes and a cost of living, with the exception being the southwest suburbs which contain many upper-middle class areas. Another exception to this is the West Side, which has a somewhat lower median income, but the western suburbs contain many affluent and upper-middle class areas. According to the 2000 Census, DuPage County as a whole had the highest median household income of any county in the Midwestern United States, although there are individual cities and towns in other surrounding counties in the metro that have even higher median incomes.
According to 2022 estimates from the U.S. Census, poverty rates of the largest counties from least poverty to most are as follows: McHenry 4.0%, Dupage 6.7%, Will 6.9%, Kane 7.8%, Lake 8.0%, and Cook 13.6%.[33] However, Cook County, which contains luxury high rises and expensive houses in sections of the city and expensive houses along the waterfront in the North Shore area, would also have the highest percentage of expensive homes in the region.
In an in-depth historical analysis, Keating (2004, 2005) examined the origins of 233 settlements that by 1900 had become suburbs or city neighborhoods of the Chicago metropolitan area. The settlements began as farm centers (41%), industrial towns (30%), residential railroad suburbs (15%), and recreational/institutional centers (13%). Although relations between the different settlement types were at times contentious, there also was cooperation in such undertakings as the construction of high schools.[citation needed]
Population
[edit]
As the Chicago metropolitan area has grown, more counties have been partly or totally assimilated with the taking of each decennial census.
Census Area
Area Type
2020 census
2010 census
2000 census
1990 census
1980 Census
1970 census
1960 census
1950 census
Chicago-Naperville-Joliet, IL-IN-WI
Metropolitan
9,618,502
9,461,105
9,098,316
8,065,633
7,869,542
7,612,314
6,794,461
5,495,364
Cook County, Illinois
Metropolitan
5,275,541
5,194,675
5,376,741
5,105,067
5,253,655
5,492,369
5,129,725
4,508,792
DeKalb County, Illinois
Metropolitan
100,420
105,160
88,969
77,932
74,624
71,654
51,714
40,781
DuPage County, Illinois
Metropolitan
932,877
916,924
904,161
781,666
658,835
491,882
313,459
154,599
Grundy County, Illinois
Metropolitan
52,533
50,063
37,535
32,337
30,582
26,535
22,350
19,217
Kane County, Illinois
Metropolitan
516,522
515,269
404,119
317,471
278,405
251,005
208,246
150,388
Kendall County, Illinois
Metropolitan
131,869
114,736
54,544
39,413
37,202
26,374
17,540
12,115
McHenry County, Illinois
Metropolitan
310,229
308,760
260,077
183,241
147,897
111,555
84,210
50,656
Will County, Illinois
Metropolitan
696,355
677,560
502,266
357,313
324,460
249,498
191,617
134,336
Jasper County, Indiana
Metropolitan
32,918
33,478
30,043
24,960
26,138
20,429
18,842
17,031
Lake County, Indiana
Metropolitan
498,700
496,005
484,564
475,594
522,965
546,253
513,269
368,152
Newton County, Indiana
Metropolitan
13,830
14,244
14,566
13,551
14,844
11,606
11,502
11,006
Porter County, Indiana
Metropolitan
173,215
164,343
146,798
128,932
119,816
87,114
60,279
40,076
Lake County, Illinois
Metropolitan
714,342
703,462
644,356
516,418
440,372
382,638
293,656
179,097
Kenosha County, Wisconsin
Metropolitan
169,151
166,426
149,577
128,181
123,137
117,917
100,615
75,238
Kankakee County, Illinois
Combined
107,502
113,449
103,833
96,255
102,926
97,250
92,063
73,524
LaSalle County, Illinois
Combined
109,658
113,924
111,509
106,913
112,003
111,409
110,800
100,610
Bureau County, Illinois
Combined
33,244
34,978
35,503
35,688
39,114
38,541
37,594
37,711
Putnam County, Illinois
Combined
5,637
6,006
6,086
5,730
6,085
5,007
4,570
4,746
LaPorte County, Indiana
Combined
112,417
111,467
110,106
107,066
108,632
105,342
95,111
76,808
Chicago-Naperville-Joliet, IL-IN-WI
Combined
9,986,960
9,686,021
9,312,255
8,385,397
8,264,490
8,089,421
7,204,198
5,911,816
Counties highlighted in gray were not included in the MSA for that census. The CSA totals in blue are the totals of all the counties listed above, regardless of whether they were included in the Chicago Combined Statistical Area at the time.[34]
Principal municipalities
[edit]
Over 1,000,000 population
[edit]
Chicago (2,746,388)
Over 100,000 population
[edit]
Aurora, Illinois (180,542)
Joliet, Illinois (150,362)
Naperville, Illinois (149,540)
Elgin, Illinois (114,797)
Over 50,000 population
[edit]
Kenosha, Wisconsin (99,986)
Waukegan, Illinois (89,321)
Cicero, Illinois (85,268)
Schaumburg, Illinois (78,723)
Evanston, Illinois (78,110)
Hammond, Indiana (77,879)
Arlington Heights, Illinois (77,676)
Bolingbrook, Illinois (73,922)
Gary, Indiana (69,093)
Palatine, Illinois (67,908)
Skokie, Illinois (67,824)
Des Plaines, Illinois (60,675)
Orland Park, Illinois (58,703)
Oak Lawn, Illinois (58,362)
Berwyn, Illinois (57,250)
Mount Prospect, Illinois (56,852)
Tinley Park, Illinois (55,971)
Oak Park, Illinois (54,583)
Wheaton, Illinois (53,970)
Downers Grove, Illinois (50,247)
View of Chicago greater metropolitan region and the North branch of the Chicago River from the Willis Tower
Urban areas within
[edit]
Within the boundary of the 16-county Chicago Combined Statistical Area lies the Chicago urban area, as well as 26 smaller urban areas.[35] Some of the urban areas below may partially cross into other statistical areas. Only those situated primarily within the Chicago combined statistical area are listed here.
Urban areas contained within the Chicago combined statistical area as of the 2020 census:
Urban areas
Counties in the Chicago MSA
Counties in the Chicago CSA but not the MSA
Urban area
Population
(2020 census)
Land area
(sq mi)
Land area
(km2)
Density
(population / sq mi)
Density
(population / km2)
Chicago, IL–IN
8,671,746
2,337.89
6,055.09
3,709.2
1,432.1
Round Lake Beach–McHenry–Grayslake, IL–WI
261,835
127.61
330.52
2,051.8
792.2
Kenosha, WI
125,865
56.17
145.48
2,240.8
865.2
Michigan City–La Porte, IN–MI
71,367
49.16
127.32
1,451.7
560.5
Kankakee, IL
66,530
31.66
82.00
2,101.4
811.3
DeKalb, IL
64,736
25.63
66.39
2,525.6
975.1
Valparaiso–Shorewood Forest, IN
51,867
33.64
87.12
1,542.0
595.4
Peru–LaSalle, IL
29,763
21.45
55.56
1,387.4
535.7
Woodstock, IL
25,298
9.31
24.10
2,718.7
1,049.7
Ottawa, IL
20,122
9.99
25.87
2,014.2
777.7
Streator, IL
16,209
8.12
21.04
1,995.3
770.4
Coal City–Braidwood, IL
15,837
10.29
26.65
1,539.4
594.4
Morris, IL
15,740
8.64
22.37
1,822.2
703.5
Lowell, IN
10,747
5.28
13.66
2,037.2
786.6
Manteno, IL
10,437
6.01
15.56
1,736.8
670.6
Harvard, IL
9,376
4.36
11.30
2,148.7
829.6
Princeton, IL
7,979
6.20
16.06
1,287.1
497.0
Marengo, IL
7,509
3.81
9.86
1,971.5
761.2
Lake Holiday, IL
7,313
4.30
11.14
1,700.5
656.6
Mendota, IL
6,918
2.85
7.38
2,426.2
936.8
Wilmington, IL
6,388
3.95
10.23
1,617.3
624.5
McHenry Northwest–Wonder Lake, IL
5,758
2.35
6.08
2,453.6
947.4
Hampshire, IL
5,699
2.72
7.06
2,091.4
807.5
Rensselaer, IN
5,509
3.23
8.37
1,703.9
657.9
Genoa, IL
5,484
2.20
5.69
2,498.0
964.5
Westville, IN
5,189
2.10
5.45
2,466.0
952.1
Marseilles, IL
4,660
2.39
6.19
1,948.4
752.3
Economy
[edit]
Westward view from the Willis Tower in Chicago
Main article: Economy of Chicago
See also: List of companies in the Chicago metropolitan area, Chicagoland Chamber of Commerce, and Economy of Illinois
The Chicago metropolitan area is home to the corporate headquarters of 57 Fortune 1000 companies, including AbbVie Inc., Allstate, Kraft Heinz, McDonald's, Mondelez International, Motorola, United Airlines, Walgreens, and more. The Chicago area also headquarters a wide variety of global financial institutions including Citadel LLC, Discover Financial Services, Morningstar, Inc., CNA Financial, and more. Chicago is home to the largest futures exchange in the world, the Chicago Mercantile Exchange. In March 2008, the Chicago Mercantile Exchange announced its acquisition of NYMEX Holdings Inc, the parent company of the New York Mercantile Exchange and Commodity Exchange. CME'S acquisition of NYMEX was completed in August 2008.
A key piece of infrastructure for several generations was the Union Stock Yards of Chicago, which from 1865 until 1971 penned and slaughtered millions of cattle and hogs into standardized cuts of beef and pork. This prompted poet Carl Sandburg to describe Chicago as the "Hog Butcher for the World".[36]
The Chicago area, meanwhile, began to produce significant quantities of telecommunications gear, electronics, steel, crude oil derivatives, automobiles, and industrial capital goods.
By the early 2000s, Illinois' economy had moved toward a dependence on high-value-added services, such as financial trading, higher education, logistics, and health care. In some cases, these services clustered around institutions that hearkened back to Illinois's earlier economies. For example, the Chicago Mercantile Exchange, a trading exchange for global derivatives, had begun its life as an agricultural futures market.
In 2007, the area ranked first among U.S. metro areas in the number of new and expanded corporate facilities.[37] It ranked third in 2008, behind the Houston–Sugar Land–Baytown and Dallas–Fort Worth metropolitan areas,[38] and ranked second behind the New York metropolitan area in 2009.[39]
The Wall Street Journal summarized the Chicago area's economy in November 2006 with the comment that "Chicago has survived by repeatedly reinventing itself."[40]
Transportation
[edit]
O'Hare Airport
Chicago 'L' in the Loop
Metra surface rail
The Eisenhower Expressway with the Chicago Transit Authority Blue Line tracks and the non-revenue ramp that leads to the Pink Line
Main articles: Transportation in Chicago and Roads and freeways in Chicago
Major airports
[edit]
Chicago O'Hare International Airport (ORD)
Chicago Midway International Airport (MDW)
Milwaukee Mitchell International Airport (MKE) (located in the adjacent Milwaukee metropolitan area)
Chicago Rockford International Airport (RFD) (located in the adjacent Rockford metropolitan area)
Gary/Chicago International Airport (GYY)
Commercial ports
[edit]
Port of Chicago
Port of Indiana-Burns Harbor
Transit systems
[edit]
Commercial freight
[edit]
Chicago has been at the center of the United States' railroad network since the 19th century. Almost all Class I railroads serve the area, the most in North America.[41]
Passenger
[edit]
Chicago Transit Authority trains, locally referred to as "the 'L'", (after "elevated train") serving Chicago and the near suburbs
Pace Suburban Bus operates suburban bus and regional vanpool, paratransit, and ride-matching services in the Chicagoland region.
Metra run by the Northeast Illinois Regional Commuter Railroad Corporation:
4 lines serving southern Cook County and Will County
3 lines serving western Cook County, DuPage County, and Kane County
2 lines serving northern Cook County and Lake County
1 line serving northern Cook County, Lake County, and Kenosha County
1 line serving northwestern Cook County and McHenry County
South Shore Line shares the Metra Electric Line in Illinois and connects Chicago to Gary, Michigan City, and ending at South Bend.
Amtrak operates Union Station which is the major Amtrak passenger rail hub with connections to Metra and the within a few blocks of connections to several 'L' lines. Amtrak also operates a connecting station out of Joliet.
Major highways
[edit]
Interstates
[edit]
Interstate 41 (I-41) runs concurrently with Interstate 94 from the northern terminus of the Tri-State Tollway to Milwaukee.
Interstate 55 (I-55) is the Adlai Stevenson Expy.
I-355 is the Veterans Memorial Tollway (formerly North-South Tollway).
I-57 is unofficially the "West Leg" of the Dan Ryan Expy.
I-65 has no name, whether official or unofficial.
I-80 is officially called the Borman Expy (cosigned with I-94), Kingery Expy (cosigned with I-94 for 3 miles), Tri-State Tollway (cosigned with I-294 for 4 miles) and is unofficially called the Moline Expy west of I-294.
I-88 is the Ronald Reagan Memorial Tollway (formerly East-West Tollway)
I-90 is locally known as Jane Addams Tollway (formerly Northwest Tollway), John F. Kennedy Expy (cosigned with I-94), Dan Ryan Expy (cosigned with I-94), and Chicago Skyway Toll Bridge.
I-94 is Tri-State Tollway in Lake County, Edens Spur, Edens Expy, John F. Kennedy Expy (cosigned with I-90), Dan Ryan Expy (cosigned with I-90), Bishop Ford Frwy (formerly Calumet Expy), Kingery Expy (cosigned with I-80) and Borman Expy (cosigned with I-80).
I-190 is the John F. Kennedy Expy spur heading into Chicago-O'Hare Int'l Airport.
I-290 is the Dwight D. Eisenhower Expy.
I-294 is the Tri-State Tollway.
Other main highways
[edit]
US Routes in the Illinois part of the area include: US 6, US 12, US 14, US 20, US 30, US 34, US 41, US 45, and US 52.
Illinois Route 53, an arterial north–south state highway running through Grundy, Will, DuPage, Cook and Lake counties
Historic US Route 66's eastern terminus is in Chicago.
Major corridors
[edit]
In addition to the Chicago Loop, the metro area is home to a few important subregional corridors of commercial activities. Among them are:
Illinois Technology and Research Corridor, along the Ronald Reagan Memorial Tollway (Interstate 88)
Golden Corridor, along the Jane Addams Memorial Tollway (Interstate 90)
Lakeshore Corridor, along the Edens Expressway and Tri-State Tollway
Culture
[edit]
Sports
[edit]
Main article: Sports in Chicago
Listing of the professional sports teams in the Chicago metropolitan area
Major league professional teams:
Major League Baseball (MLB)
Chicago Cubs
Chicago White Sox
National Football League (NFL)
Chicago Bears
National Basketball Association (NBA)
Chicago Bulls
National Hockey League (NHL)
Chicago Blackhawks
Major League Soccer (MLS)
Chicago Fire FC
Other professional teams:
Women's National Basketball Association (WNBA)
Chicago Sky
National Women's Soccer League (NWSL)
Chicago Stars FC
American Association of Professional Baseball (AA)
Chicago Dogs
Kane County Cougars
Gary SouthShore RailCats
American Hockey League (AHL)
Chicago Wolves
NBA G League (NBAGL)
Windy City Bulls
Major League Rugby (MLR)
Chicago Hounds
The Chicagoland Speedway oval track has hosted NASCAR Cup Series and IndyCar Series races. The Chicago Marathon is one of the World Marathon Majors. The Western Open and BMW Championship are PGA Tour tournaments that have been held primarily at golf courses near Chicago.
NCAA Division I College Sports Teams:
Atlantic 10 Conference
Loyola University Chicago Ramblers
Big East Conference
DePaul University Blue Demons
Big Ten Conference
Northwestern University Wildcats (Evanston)
Mid-American Conference
Northern Illinois University Huskies (DeKalb)
Missouri Valley Conference
University of Illinois Chicago Flames
Valparaiso University Beacons (Valparaiso, IN)
Northeast Conference
Chicago State University Cougars
Cuisine
[edit]
Further information: Chicago § Cuisine
Chicago-style hot dog
Chicago-style pizza
Italian beef
Caramel popcorn
Media
[edit]
Main article: Media in Chicago
The two main newspapers are the Chicago Tribune and the Chicago Sun-Times. Local television channels broadcasting to the Chicago market include WBBM-TV 2 (CBS), WMAQ-TV 5 (NBC), WLS-TV 7 (ABC), WGN-TV 9 (Ind), WTTW 11 (PBS), MeTV 23, WCIU 26 (CW), WFLD 32 (FOX), WCPX-TV 38 (Ion), WSNS-TV 44 (Telemundo), WPWR-TV 50 (MyNetworkTV), and WJYS-TV 62 (The Way). Radio stations serving the area include: WBBM (AM), WBEZ, WGN (AM), WMBI, WLS (AM), and WSCR.
Education
[edit]
Further information: List of school districts in Illinois, List of school districts in Indiana, and List of colleges and universities in Chicago
Whitney M. Young Magnet High School in Chicago
Elementary and secondary education within the Chicago metropolitan area is provided by dozens of different school districts, of which by far the largest is the Chicago Public Schools with 400,000 students.[42] Numerous private and religious school systems are also found in the region, as well as a growing number of charter schools. Racial inequalities in education in the region remain widespread, often breaking along district boundaries;[43] for instance, educational prospects vary widely for students in the Chicago Public Schools compared to those in some neighboring suburban schools.[44]
Historically, the Chicago metropolitan area has been at the center of a number of national educational movements, from the free-flowing Winnetka Plan to the regimented Taylorism of the Gary Plan.[45] In higher education, University of Chicago founder William Rainey Harper was a leading early advocate of the junior college movement; Joliet Junior College is the nation's oldest continuously operating junior college today.[46] Later U of C president Robert Maynard Hutchins was central to the Great Books movement, and programs of dialogic education arising from that legacy can be found today at the U of C, at Shimer College,[47] and in the City Colleges of Chicago and Oakton College in the Northwest suburbs.[48]
Area codes
[edit]
Main article: List of Illinois area codes
From 1947 until 1988, the Illinois portion of the Chicago metro area was served by a single area code, 312, which abutted the 815 area code. In 1988 the 708 area code was introduced and the 312 area code became exclusive to the city of Chicago.
It became common to call suburbanites "708'ers", in reference to their area code.
The 708 area code was partitioned in 1996 into three area codes, serving different portions of the metro area: 630, 708, and 847.
At the same time that the 708 area code was running out of phone numbers, the 312 area code in Chicago was also exhausting its supply of available numbers. As a result, the city of Chicago was divided into two area codes, 312 and 773. Rather than divide the city by a north–south area code, the central business district retained the 312 area code, while the remainder of the city took the new 773 code.
In 2002, the 847 area code was supplemented with the overlay area code 224. In February 2007, the 815 area code (serving outlying portions of the metro area) was supplemented with the overlay area code 779. In October 2007, the overlay area code 331 was implemented to supplement the 630 area with additional numbers.
Plans are in place for overlay codes in the 708, 773, and 312 regions as those area codes become exhausted in the future.
312 Chicago - City (The Loop and central neighborhoods, e.g. the Near North Side)
773 Chicago - City (Everywhere else within the city limits, excluding central area)
872 Chicago - City (overlay for 312 & 773, effective November 7, 2009)
847/224 (North and Northwest Suburbs)
630/331 (Outer Western Suburbs)
708 (South and Near West Suburbs)
815/779 (Rockford & Joliet: Far Northwest/Southwest Suburbs)
^ ab
"Elevations of the 50 Largest Cities". U.S. Geological Survey. Archived from the original on November 9, 2013. Retrieved January 23, 2016. Chicago city proper only
^"2020 Population and Housing State Data". United States Census Bureau, Population Division. August 12, 2021. Retrieved November 19, 2021.
^"USA: Combined Metropolitan Areas". CityPopulation.de. August 2021. Retrieved November 19, 2021.
^"Total Gross Domestic Product for Chicago-Naperville-Elgin, IL-IN-WI (MSA)". Federal Reserve Economic Data. Federal Reserve Bank of St. Louis.
^"Annual Estimates of the Resident Population for Combined Statistical Areas in the United States and Puerto Rico: April 1, 2010 to July 1, 2019 (CSA-EST2019-ANNRES)". United States Census Bureau, Population Division. March 2020. Retrieved May 5, 2020.
^"Annual Estimates of the Resident Population for Metropolitan Statistical Areas in the United States and Puerto Rico: April 1, 2010 to July 1, 2019 (CBSA-MET-EST2019-ANNRES)". United States Census Bureau, Population Division. March 2020. Retrieved May 5, 2020.
^"CAEMP25N Total Full-Time and Part-Time Employment by NAICS Industry 1/ 2018". Bureau of Economic Analysis. November 14, 2019. Retrieved May 5, 2020.
^"CAGDP1 Gross Domestic Product (GDP) summary by county and metropolitan area 2018". Bureau of Economic Analysis. December 12, 2019. Retrieved May 5, 2020.
^"Economy". Worldbusinesschicago.com. Retrieved October 3, 2017.
^"Chicago Named Nation's Top Metro Area for Corporate Relocation For the Sixth Straight Year". World Business Chicago. March 25, 2019. Retrieved July 21, 2019.
^ abc"Metropolitan and Micropolitan Statistical Areas Population Totals and Components of Change: 2020-2021". Census.gov. United States Census Bureau. Retrieved February 12, 2023.
^"The World's Cities in 2018" (PDF). United Nations, Department of Economic and Social Affairs, Population Division. Retrieved May 5, 2020.
^As defined by Construction Data Company.
^ abFuller, Jack (2005). "Chicagoland". The Electronic Encyclopedia of Chicago. Chicago Historical Society. Retrieved February 20, 2010.
^"The Press: The Colonel's Century". TIME. June 9, 1947. Archived from the original on September 18, 2008. Retrieved February 20, 2010.
^O'Donnell Bennett, James (July 27, 1926). "Chicagoland's Shrines: A Tour of Discoveries". Chicago Daily Tribune (1923-1963). Archived from the original on September 10, 2010. Retrieved February 20, 2010.
^Cronon (1992); Keating (2005); Keating (2004)
^"Classifieds map of Chicagoland". Chicagotribune.com. Retrieved May 30, 2011.
^[1] Archived November 10, 2006, at the Wayback Machine
^"About Chicagoland". Chicagoland Chamber of Commerce. Archived from the original on October 29, 2013. Retrieved October 25, 2013.
^"Bidtool Coverage area: Chicago, Indiana, Wisconsin, Colorado, Kentucky project leads". Bidtool.net. Archived from the original on July 15, 2011. Retrieved May 30, 2011.
^Mariner, Richard D. (July 10, 2018). "Collar Counties". The Electrictronic Encyclopedia of Chicago. Chicago, IL: Chicago Historical Society (2005), Newberry Library (2004).
^"Chicago Metropolitan Agency for Planning". Chicagoareaplanning.org. Archived from the original on August 12, 2006. Retrieved May 30, 2011.
^"About - CMAP". Cmap.illinois.gov. Retrieved September 7, 2015.
^Nowak, David J.; Hoehn, Robert E. III; Bodine, Allison R.; Crane, Daniel E.; Dwyer, John F.; Bonnewell, Veta; Watson, Gary. (September 17, 2013). "Urban trees and forests of the Chicago region". Nrs.fs.fed.us. doi:10.2737/NRS-RB-84. Retrieved September 7, 2015.
^"Regional Tree Census | The Morton Arboretum". Mortonarb.org. Archived from the original on May 15, 2015. Retrieved September 7, 2015.
^"Grid View: Table B03002 - Census Reporter". censusreporter.org. Retrieved June 29, 2024.
^"Grid View: Table B04006 - Census Reporter". censusreporter.org. Retrieved June 29, 2024.
^"Grid View: Table B02018 - Census Reporter". censusreporter.org. Retrieved June 29, 2024.
^"Grid View: Table B03001 - Census Reporter". censusreporter.org. Retrieved June 29, 2024.
^"Grid View: Table B02009 - Census Reporter". censusreporter.org. Retrieved June 29, 2024.
^"Kendall County is fastest growing in the nation". Daily Herald. Retrieved May 30, 2011.
^"Census profile: Chicago-Naperville-Elgin, IL-IN-WI Metro Area". Census Reporter. Retrieved June 29, 2024.
^"Historical Metropolitan Area Definitions". Census.gov. Retrieved May 30, 2011.
^"List of 2020 Census Urban Areas". United States Census Bureau. Retrieved January 7, 2023.
^Carl Sandburg. "Chicago". Poetry: A Magazine of Verse, vol. 3, no. 6 (March 1914):191-192.
^RON STARNER. "TOP METROS OF 2007 - Site Selection magazine, March 2008". Siteselection.com. Retrieved May 30, 2011.
^RON STARNER (March 9, 2009). "TOP METROS OF 2008 - Site Selection magazine, March 2009". Siteselection.com. Retrieved May 30, 2011.
^"TOP METROS OF 2009 - Site Selection Magazine, March 2010". Siteselection.com. Archived from the original on July 2, 2011. Retrieved May 30, 2011.
^Brat, Ilan (November 8, 2006). "Tale of a Warehouse Shows How Chicago Weathers a Decline". The Wall Street Journal. p. A1. Retrieved February 20, 2010.
^"Chicago Highlighted as the US Railroad Capital by Trains Magazine". WTTW. February 23, 2017. Retrieved March 23, 2019.
^"About CPS". Chicago Public Schools. Retrieved January 26, 2015.
^Moore, Natalie (November 12, 2014). "Why so few white kids land in CPS — and why it matters". WBEZ. Archived from the original on January 17, 2015. Retrieved January 26, 2015.
^Bogira, Steve (October 17, 2012). "Two students, two high schools, two divergent paths to college". Chicago Reader.
^Thiede, Robert. "Gary Plan". Britannica.com. Retrieved January 16, 2015.
^Sydow, Debbie; Alfred, Richard (2012). Re-visioning Community Colleges: Positioning for Innovation. Rowman & Littlefield Publishers. p. 13. ISBN 978-1442214880.
^Ronson, Jon (December 6, 2014). "Shimer College: The Worst School in America?". The Guardian.
^"Great Books program". Oakton Community College. Retrieved January 26, 2015.
Further reading
[edit]
Fischer, Paul B. (July 28, 1993). Racial and Locational Patterns of Subsidized Housing in the Chicago Suburbs: A Report to the MacArthur Foundation (Archive). Lake Forest, Ill.: Lake Forest College. Report to the MacArthur Foundation.
Lewinnek, Elaine (2014). The Working Man's Reward: Chicago's Early Suburbs and the Roots of American Sprawl. Oxford: Oxford University Press.
External links
[edit]
Chicago metropolitan area at Wikipedia's sister projects
Definitions from Wiktionary
Media from Commons
Travel information from Wikivoyage
Data from Wikidata
Encyclopedia of Chicago (2004), comprehensive coverage of city and suburbs, past and present
U.S. Census Urbanized Area Outline Map (2000)
Chicago-Naperville-Michigan City, IL-IN-WI Combined Statistical Area (2012) map
Illinois CBSAs and Counties (2013) map
U.S. Census Bureau Chicago city, Illinois QuickFacts
Metropolitan and Micropolitan Statistical Areas
About Metropolitan and Micropolitan Statistical Areas
History of Metropolitan Areas
Metropolitan and Micropolitan Statistical Areas Population Totals and Components of Change: 2010–2019
v
t
e
Chicago metropolitan area
Major city
Chicago
Cities
(over 30,000 in 2020)
Aurora
Berwyn
Calumet City
Crown Point
Crystal Lake
DeKalb
Des Plaines
Elgin
Elmhurst
Evanston
Gary
Hammond
Highland Park
Joliet
Kenosha
Naperville
North Chicago
Park Ridge
Portage
St. Charles
Valparaiso
Waukegan
Wheaton
Towns and villages
(over 30,000 in 2020)
Addison
Arlington Heights
Bartlett
Bolingbrook
Buffalo Grove
Carol Stream
Carpentersville
Cicero
Downers Grove
Elk Grove Village
Glendale Heights
Glenview
Grayslake
Gurnee
Hanover Park
Hoffman Estates
Lombard
Merrillville
Mount Prospect
Mundelein
Niles
Northbrook
Oak Lawn
Oak Park
Orland Park
Oswego
Palatine
Plainfield
Romeoville
Schaumburg
Skokie
Streamwood
Tinley Park
Wheeling
Wonder Lake
Woodridge
Counties
Cook
DeKalb
DuPage
Grundy
Jasper
Kane
Kankakee
Kendall
Kenosha
Lake, IL
Lake, IN
McHenry
Newton
Porter
Will
Regions
Great Lakes
Northern Illinois
Northern Indiana
Sub-regions
Chicago Southland
Eastern Ridges and Lowlands
Fox Valley (Illinois)
Golden Corridor
Illinois Technology and Research Corridor
North Shore (Chicago)
Northwest Indiana
Illinois, United States
v
t
e
Chicago
Architecture
Beaches
Climate
Colleges and universities
Community areas
Crime
gangs
Culture
Demographics
Economy
companies
Expressways
Flag
Geography
Government
Harbor
History
politics
timeline
Landmarks
Literature
Media
Newspapers
Metropolitan area
Museums
Neighborhoods
Parks
list
People
music
musicians
theater
Public schools
list
Skyscrapers
Sports
Tourism
Transportation
Visual arts
Portal
Category
v
t
e
State of Illinois
Springfield (capital)
Topics
Index
Abortion
African Americans
Buildings and structures
Census areas
Climate change
Crime
Communications
Culture
Delegations
Earthquakes
Economy
Education
Energy
Environment
Geography
Government
Health
History
Homelessness
Languages
Law
Military
Music
People
Politics
Portal
Protected areas
Science and technology
Sister cities
Society
Sports
Symbols
Tourism
Transportation
Windmills
Regions
American Bottom
Bloomington–Normal metropolitan area
Central Illinois
Champaign–Urbana metropolitan area
Chicago metropolitan area
Collar counties
Corn Belt
Driftless Area
Forgottonia
Fox Valley
Illinois–Indiana–Kentucky tri-state area
Metro East
Metro Lakeland
Mississippi Alluvial Plain
North Shore
Northern Illinois
Northwestern Illinois
Peoria metropolitan area
Quad Cities
River Bend
Rockford metropolitan area
Southern Illinois
Wabash Valley
Municipalities
Alton/Granite City/Edwardsville
Arlington Heights/Palatine
Aurora/Naperville/Oswego/Plainfield
Bartlett/Hanover Park/Streamwood
Belleville/East St. Louis/Collinsville/O'Fallon
Berwyn/Cicero
Bloomington/Normal
Bolingbrook/Romeoville
Buffalo Grove/Wheeling
Calumet City
Canton
Carbondale
Carol Stream/Glendale Heights
Centralia
Champaign/Urbana
Charleston/Mattoon
Chicago
Chicago Heights
Crystal Lake/Algonquin
Danville
Decatur
DeKalb/Sycamore
Des Plaines/Mount Prospect/Park Ridge
Dixon
Downers Grove/Woodridge
Effingham
Elgin/Carpentersville
Elmhurst/Lombard/Addison
Evanston/Skokie
Freeport
Galesburg
Glenview/Northbrook
Harrisburg
Jacksonville
Joliet
Kankakee/Bradley/Bourbonnais
Lincoln
Macomb
Marion/Herrin
Moline/East Moline/Rock Island
Mount Vernon
Mundelein
Oak Lawn
Oak Park
Orland Park/Tinley Park
Ottawa/Streator/LaSalle/Peru
Peoria/Pekin/East Peoria/Morton/Washington
Pontiac
Quincy
Rochelle
Rockford/Belvidere/Machesney Park/Loves Park
St. Charles
Schaumburg/Hoffman Estates/Elk Grove Village
Springfield
Sterling/Rock Falls
Taylorville
Waukegan/North Chicago/Gurnee
Wheaton
Counties
Adams
Alexander
Bond
Boone
Brown
Bureau
Calhoun
Carroll
Cass
Champaign
Christian
Clark
Clay
Clinton
Coles
Cook
Crawford
Cumberland
DeKalb
DeWitt
Douglas
DuPage
Edgar
Edwards
Effingham
Fayette
Ford
Franklin
Fulton
Gallatin
Greene
Grundy
Hamilton
Hancock
Hardin
Henderson
Henry
Iroquois
Jackson
Jasper
Jefferson
Jersey
Jo Daviess
Johnson
Kane
Kankakee
Kendall
Knox
Lake
LaSalle
Lawrence
Lee
Livingston
Logan
Macon
Macoupin
Madison
Marion
Marshall
Mason
Massac
McDonough
McHenry
McLean
Menard
Mercer
Monroe
Montgomery
Morgan
Moultrie
Ogle
Peoria
Perry
Piatt
Pike
Pope
Pulaski
Putnam
Randolph
Richland
Rock Island
Saline
Sangamon
Schuyler
Scott
Shelby
St. Clair
Stark
Stephenson
Tazewell
Union
Vermilion
Wabash
Warren
Washington
Wayne
White
Whiteside
Will
Williamson
Winnebago
Woodford
Illinois portal
v
t
e
State of Indiana
Indianapolis (capital)
Topics
Index
Outline
Census-designated places
City nicknames
Climate
climate change
Fauna
Geography
Ghostlore
History
Hoosiers
Music
National Natural Landmarks
NRHP listings
National Historic Landmarks
Paleontology
Protected areas
Scouting
Sports
State historical markers
State historic sites
Symbols
Tallest buildings
Time
Tourist attractions
Transportation
Government
Code
Constitution
Congressional districts
delegations
Elections
Governor
list
General Assembly
House
Senate
Supreme Court
Taxation
Society
Abortion
Culture
Crime
Demographics
Economy
Education
Gun laws
Gambling
Homelessness
LGBT rights
Politics
Largest cities
Anderson
Bloomington
Carmel
Columbus
Crown Point
Elkhart
Evansville
Fishers
Fort Wayne
Gary
Goshen
Greenwood
Hammond
Indianapolis
Jeffersonville
Kokomo
Lafayette
Lawrence
Michigan City
Mishawaka
Muncie
New Albany
Noblesville
Portage
Richmond
South Bend
Terre Haute
Valparaiso
Westfield
West Lafayette
Largest towns
Avon
Brownsburg
Clarksville
Highland
Merrillville
Munster
Plainfield
Saint John
Schererville
Zionsville
Counties
Adams
Allen
Bartholomew
Benton
Blackford
Boone
Brown
Carroll
Cass
Clark
Clay
Clinton
Crawford
Daviess
Dearborn
Decatur
DeKalb
Delaware
Dubois
Elkhart
Fayette
Floyd
Fountain
Franklin
Fulton
Gibson
Grant
Greene
Hamilton
Hancock
Harrison
Hendricks
Henry
Howard
Huntington
Jackson
Jasper
Jay
Jefferson
Jennings
Johnson
Knox
Kosciusko
LaGrange
Lake
LaPorte
Lawrence
Madison
Marion
Marshall
Martin
Miami
Monroe
Montgomery
Morgan
Newton
Noble
Ohio
Orange
Owen
Parke
Perry
Pike
Porter
Posey
Pulaski
Putnam
Randolph
Ripley
Rush
Saint Joseph
Scott
Shelby
Spencer
Starke
Steuben
Sullivan
Switzerland
Tippecanoe
Tipton
Union
Vanderburgh
Vermillion
Vigo
Wabash
Warren
Warrick
Washington
Wayne
Wells
White
Whitley
Regions
Central Indiana
East Central Indiana
Wabash Valley
Northern Indiana
Northwest Indiana
Chicago metropolitan area
Michiana
Southern Indiana
Indiana Uplands
Kentuckiana
Southwestern Indiana
Indiana portal
v
t
e
State of Wisconsin
Madison (capital)
Topics
Outline
Agriculture
Dairy industry
Climate change
Geography
Islands
Lakes
Governors
Delegations
History
People
Sports
Symbols
Tourist attractions
Society
Abortion
Administrative divisions
Cannabis
Crime
Culture
Demographics
Economy
Education
Gun laws
LGBT rights
Politics
Regions
Apostle Islands
Central Plain
Chippewa Valley
Door Peninsula
Driftless Area
Eastern Ridges and Lowlands
Fox River Valley
Great River Road
Lake Superior Lowland
Northern Highland
Western Upland
Major metropolitan areas
(pop. over 500,000)
Chicago metropolitan area
Madison metropolitan area
Milwaukee metropolitan area
Twin Cities metropolitan area
Largest cities
(pop. over 50,000)
Appleton
Eau Claire
Green Bay
Janesville
Kenosha
La Crosse
Madison
Milwaukee
Oshkosh
Racine
Waukesha
West Allis
Smaller cities
(pop. 15,000 to 50,000)
Beaver Dam
Beloit
Brookfield
Cudahy
De Pere
Fitchburg
Fond du Lac
Franklin
Greenfield
Hartford
Hudson
Kaukauna
Manitowoc
Marshfield
Menasha
Menomonie
Mequon
Middleton
Muskego
Neenah
New Berlin
Oak Creek
Oconomowoc
Onalaska
River Falls
Sheboygan
South Milwaukee
Stevens Point
Sun Prairie
Superior
Watertown
Wausau
Wauwatosa
West Bend
Wisconsin Rapids
Largest villages
(pop. over 15,000)
Ashwaubenon
Bellevue
Caledonia
Fox Crossing
Germantown
Howard
Menomonee Falls
Mount Pleasant
Pleasant Prairie
Counties
Adams
Ashland
Barron
Bayfield
Brown
Buffalo
Burnett
Calumet
Chippewa
Clark
Columbia
Crawford
Dane
Dodge
Door
Douglas
Dunn
Eau Claire
Florence
Fond du Lac
Forest
Grant
Green
Green Lake
Iowa
Iron
Jackson
Jefferson
Juneau
Kenosha
Kewaunee
La Crosse
Lafayette
Langlade
Lincoln
Manitowoc
Marathon
Marinette
Marquette
Menominee
Milwaukee
Monroe
Oconto
Oneida
Outagamie
Ozaukee
Pepin
Pierce
Polk
Portage
Price
Racine
Richland
Rock
Rusk
Sauk
Sawyer
Shawano
Sheboygan
St. Croix
Taylor
Trempealeau
Vernon
Vilas
Walworth
Washburn
Washington
Waukesha
Waupaca
Waushara
Winnebago
Wood
Wisconsin portal
v
t
e
World's 50 most-populous urban areas
Tokyo
Jakarta
Delhi
Guangzhou–Foshan
Mumbai
Manila
Shanghai
Seoul
Cairo
Mexico City
Kolkata
São Paulo
New York
Karachi
Dhaka
Bangkok
Beijing
Moscow
Shenzhen
Buenos Aires
Los Angeles
Johannesburg-Pretoria
Bengaluru
Chengdu
Ho Chi Minh City
Osaka–Kobe–Kyoto
Lagos
Istanbul
Lahore
Kinshasa–Brazzaville
Tehran
Chongqing
Rio de Janeiro
Xi'an
Chennai
Paris
Zhengzhou
Luanda
London
Dongguan
Lima
Wuhan
Bogotá
Tianjin
Hyderabad
Taipei
Hangzhou
Nagoya
Surabaya
Bandung
v
t
e
Great Lakes megalopolis as defined by the RPA
Includes all metropolitan areas that have a population of 150,000 or greater according to the most recent national census.
Great Lakes region cities
Brantford
Buffalo–Niagara Falls
Buffalo
Niagara Falls
Chicago
city
Cleveland
city
Detroit
city
Duluth–Superior
Duluth
Superior
Erie
city
Grand Rapids
city
Guelph
Green Bay
city
Hamilton
Holland
Kalamazoo
city
Kenosha
Lansing
city
London
Milwaukee
city
Muskegon
Niagara Region
St. Catharines
Niagara Falls
Welland
Niles
Oshawa
Rochester, New York
city
South Bend
city
Thunder Bay
Toledo
city
Toronto
city
Traverse City
city
Waterloo Region
Kitchener
Cambridge
Waterloo
Windsor
Surrounding cities
Akron
city
Altoona
Ann Arbor
Barrie
Bloomington, Indiana
city
Bloomington–Normal
Bloomington, Illinois
Normal
Canton
city
Champaign
city
Cincinnati
city
Columbus
city
Dayton
city
Eau Claire
city
Elkhart
Evansville
city
Fargo
city
Flint
Fort Wayne
city
Fox Cities
Appleton
Oshkosh
Indianapolis
city
Jackson
Janesville–Beloit
Kankakee
city
Kingston
La Crosse–Onalaska
La Crosse
Onalaska
Lafayette
city
Madison
city
Mahoning Valley
Youngstown
Minneapolis–Saint Paul
Minneapolis
Saint Paul
Greater Montreal
Laval
Longueuil
Montreal
National Capital Region
Ottawa
Gatineau
Pittsburgh
city
Peoria
city
Peterborough
Rockford
city
Rochester, Minnesota
city
Saguenay
St. Cloud
city
Saginaw
city
Sioux Falls
city
Springfield
city
Sudbury
urban neighbourhoods
Syracuse
city
Terre Haute
city
Trois-Rivières
Utica–Rome
Utica
Rome
Quad Cities
Bettendorf
Davenport
East Moline
Moline
Rock Island
Greater Quebec
city
Cities of states south of region
Elizabethtown
city
Kansas City
city
Louisville
city
St. Louis
city
Topeka
city
Wheeling
city
Other metro-regions
Quebec City–Windsor Corridor
Golden Horseshoe
Greater Toronto and Hamilton Area
Detroit–Windsor
Greater Pittsburgh
Metro East
Other megaregions
Authority control databases
International
VIAF
FAST
National
Germany
United States
Israel
About geotechnical engineering
Scientific study of earth materials in engineering problems
Boston's Big Dig presented geotechnical challenges in an urban environment.Precast concrete retaining wallA typical cross-section of a slope used in two-dimensional analyzes.
Geotechnical engineering, also known as geotechnics, is the branch of civil engineering concerned with the engineering behavior of earth materials. It uses the principles of soil mechanics and rock mechanics to solve its engineering problems. It also relies on knowledge of geology, hydrology, geophysics, and other related sciences.
Geotechnical engineering has applications in military engineering, mining engineering, petroleum engineering, coastal engineering, and offshore construction. The fields of geotechnical engineering and engineering geology have overlapping knowledge areas. However, while geotechnical engineering is a specialty of civil engineering, engineering geology is a specialty of geology.
History
[edit]
Humans have historically used soil as a material for flood control, irrigation purposes, burial sites, building foundations, and construction materials for buildings. Dykes, dams, and canals dating back to at least 2000 BCE—found in parts of ancient Egypt, ancient Mesopotamia, the Fertile Crescent, and the early settlements of Mohenjo Daro and Harappa in the Indus valley—provide evidence for early activities linked to irrigation and flood control. As cities expanded, structures were erected and supported by formalized foundations. The ancient Greeks notably constructed pad footings and strip-and-raft foundations. Until the 18th century, however, no theoretical basis for soil design had been developed, and the discipline was more of an art than a science, relying on experience.[1]
Several foundation-related engineering problems, such as the Leaning Tower of Pisa, prompted scientists to begin taking a more scientific-based approach to examining the subsurface. The earliest advances occurred in the development of earth pressure theories for the construction of retaining walls. Henri Gautier, a French royal engineer, recognized the "natural slope" of different soils in 1717, an idea later known as the soil's angle of repose. Around the same time, a rudimentary soil classification system was also developed based on a material's unit weight, which is no longer considered a good indication of soil type.[1][2]
The application of the principles of mechanics to soils was documented as early as 1773 when Charles Coulomb, a physicist and engineer, developed improved methods to determine the earth pressures against military ramparts. Coulomb observed that, at failure, a distinct slip plane would form behind a sliding retaining wall and suggested that the maximum shear stress on the slip plane, for design purposes, was the sum of the soil cohesion, , and friction , where is the normal stress on the slip plane and is the friction angle of the soil. By combining Coulomb's theory with Christian Otto Mohr's 2D stress state, the theory became known as Mohr-Coulomb theory. Although it is now recognized that precise determination of cohesion is impossible because is not a fundamental soil property, the Mohr-Coulomb theory is still used in practice today.[3]
In the 19th century, Henry Darcy developed what is now known as Darcy's Law, describing the flow of fluids in a porous media. Joseph Boussinesq, a mathematician and physicist, developed theories of stress distribution in elastic solids that proved useful for estimating stresses at depth in the ground. William Rankine, an engineer and physicist, developed an alternative to Coulomb's earth pressure theory. Albert Atterberg developed the clay consistency indices that are still used today for soil classification.[1][2] In 1885, Osborne Reynolds recognized that shearing causes volumetric dilation of dense materials and contraction of loose granular materials.
Modern geotechnical engineering is said to have begun in 1925 with the publication of Erdbaumechanik by Karl von Terzaghi, a mechanical engineer and geologist. Considered by many to be the father of modern soil mechanics and geotechnical engineering, Terzaghi developed the principle of effective stress, and demonstrated that the shear strength of soil is controlled by effective stress.[4] Terzaghi also developed the framework for theories of bearing capacity of foundations, and the theory for prediction of the rate of settlement of clay layers due to consolidation.[1][3][5] Afterwards, Maurice Biot fully developed the three-dimensional soil consolidation theory, extending the one-dimensional model previously developed by Terzaghi to more general hypotheses and introducing the set of basic equations of Poroelasticity.
In his 1948 book, Donald Taylor recognized that the interlocking and dilation of densely packed particles contributed to the peak strength of the soil. Roscoe, Schofield, and Wroth, with the publication of On the Yielding of Soils in 1958, established the interrelationships between the volume change behavior (dilation, contraction, and consolidation) and shearing behavior with the theory of plasticity using critical state soil mechanics. Critical state soil mechanics is the basis for many contemporary advanced constitutive models describing the behavior of soil.[6]
In 1960, Alec Skempton carried out an extensive review of the available formulations and experimental data in the literature about the effective stress validity in soil, concrete, and rock in order to reject some of these expressions, as well as clarify what expressions were appropriate according to several working hypotheses, such as stress-strain or strength behavior, saturated or non-saturated media, and rock, concrete or soil behavior.
Roles
[edit]
Geotechnical investigation
[edit]
Main article: Geotechnical investigation
Geotechnical engineers investigate and determine the properties of subsurface conditions and materials. They also design corresponding earthworks and retaining structures, tunnels, and structure foundations, and may supervise and evaluate sites, which may further involve site monitoring as well as the risk assessment and mitigation of natural hazards.[7][8]
Geotechnical engineers and engineering geologists perform geotechnical investigations to obtain information on the physical properties of soil and rock underlying and adjacent to a site to design earthworks and foundations for proposed structures and for the repair of distress to earthworks and structures caused by subsurface conditions. Geotechnical investigations involve surface and subsurface exploration of a site, often including subsurface sampling and laboratory testing of retrieved soil samples. Sometimes, geophysical methods are also used to obtain data, which include measurement of seismic waves (pressure, shear, and Rayleigh waves), surface-wave methods and downhole methods, and electromagnetic surveys (magnetometer, resistivity, and ground-penetrating radar). Electrical tomography can be used to survey soil and rock properties and existing underground infrastructure in construction projects.[9]
Surface exploration can include on-foot surveys, geologic mapping, geophysical methods, and photogrammetry. Geologic mapping and interpretation of geomorphology are typically completed in consultation with a geologist or engineering geologist. Subsurface exploration usually involves in-situ testing (for example, the standard penetration test and cone penetration test). The digging of test pits and trenching (particularly for locating faults and slide planes) may also be used to learn about soil conditions at depth. Large-diameter borings are rarely used due to safety concerns and expense. Still, they are sometimes used to allow a geologist or engineer to be lowered into the borehole for direct visual and manual examination of the soil and rock stratigraphy.
Various soil samplers exist to meet the needs of different engineering projects. The standard penetration test, which uses a thick-walled split spoon sampler, is the most common way to collect disturbed samples. Piston samplers, employing a thin-walled tube, are most commonly used to collect less disturbed samples. More advanced methods, such as the Sherbrooke block sampler, are superior but expensive. Coring frozen ground provides high-quality undisturbed samples from ground conditions, such as fill, sand, moraine, and rock fracture zones.[10]
Geotechnical centrifuge modeling is another method of testing physical-scale models of geotechnical problems. The use of a centrifuge enhances the similarity of the scale model tests involving soil because soil's strength and stiffness are susceptible to the confining pressure. The centrifugal acceleration allows a researcher to obtain large (prototype-scale) stresses in small physical models.
Foundation design
[edit]
Main article: Foundation (engineering)
The foundation of a structure's infrastructure transmits loads from the structure to the earth. Geotechnical engineers design foundations based on the load characteristics of the structure and the properties of the soils and bedrock at the site. Generally, geotechnical engineers first estimate the magnitude and location of loads to be supported before developing an investigation plan to explore the subsurface and determine the necessary soil parameters through field and lab testing. Following this, they may begin the design of an engineering foundation. The primary considerations for a geotechnical engineer in foundation design are bearing capacity, settlement, and ground movement beneath the foundations.[11]
Earthworks
[edit]
A compactor/roller operated by U.S. Navy Seabees
See also: Earthworks (engineering)
Geotechnical engineers are also involved in the planning and execution of earthworks, which include ground improvement,[11] slope stabilization, and slope stability analysis.
Ground improvement
[edit]
Various geotechnical engineering methods can be used for ground improvement, including reinforcement geosynthetics such as geocells and geogrids, which disperse loads over a larger area, increasing the soil's load-bearing capacity. Through these methods, geotechnical engineers can reduce direct and long-term costs.[12]
Slope stabilization
[edit]
Simple slope slip section.
Main article: Slope stability
Geotechnical engineers can analyze and improve slope stability using engineering methods. Slope stability is determined by the balance of shear stress and shear strength. A previously stable slope may be initially affected by various factors, making it unstable. Nonetheless, geotechnical engineers can design and implement engineered slopes to increase stability.
Slope stability analysis
[edit]
Main article: Slope stability analysis
Stability analysis is needed to design engineered slopes and estimate the risk of slope failure in natural or designed slopes by determining the conditions under which the topmost mass of soil will slip relative to the base of soil and lead to slope failure.[13] If the interface between the mass and the base of a slope has a complex geometry, slope stability analysis is difficult and numerical solution methods are required. Typically, the interface's exact geometry is unknown, and a simplified interface geometry is assumed. Finite slopes require three-dimensional models to be analyzed, so most slopes are analyzed assuming that they are infinitely wide and can be represented by two-dimensional models.
Sub-disciplines
[edit]
Geosynthetics
[edit]
Main article: Geosynthetics
A collage of geosynthetic products.
Geosynthetics are a type of plastic polymer products used in geotechnical engineering that improve engineering performance while reducing costs. This includes geotextiles, geogrids, geomembranes, geocells, and geocomposites. The synthetic nature of the products make them suitable for use in the ground where high levels of durability are required. Their main functions include drainage, filtration, reinforcement, separation, and containment.
Geosynthetics are available in a wide range of forms and materials, each to suit a slightly different end-use, although they are frequently used together. Some reinforcement geosynthetics, such as geogrids and more recently, cellular confinement systems, have shown to improve bearing capacity, modulus factors and soil stiffness and strength.[14] These products have a wide range of applications and are currently used in many civil and geotechnical engineering applications including roads, airfields, railroads, embankments, piled embankments, retaining structures, reservoirs, canals, dams, landfills, bank protection and coastal engineering.[15]
Offshore
[edit]
Main article: Offshore geotechnical engineering
Platforms offshore Mexico.
Offshore (or marine) geotechnical engineering is concerned with foundation design for human-made structures in the sea, away from the coastline (in opposition to onshore or nearshore engineering). Oil platforms, artificial islands and submarine pipelines are examples of such structures.[16]
There are a number of significant differences between onshore and offshore geotechnical engineering.[16][17] Notably, site investigation and ground improvement on the seabed are more expensive; the offshore structures are exposed to a wider range of geohazards; and the environmental and financial consequences are higher in case of failure. Offshore structures are exposed to various environmental loads, notably wind, waves and currents. These phenomena may affect the integrity or the serviceability of the structure and its foundation during its operational lifespan and need to be taken into account in offshore design.
In subsea geotechnical engineering, seabed materials are considered a two-phase material composed of rock or mineral particles and water.[18][19] Structures may be fixed in place in the seabed—as is the case for piers, jetties and fixed-bottom wind turbines—or may comprise a floating structure that remains roughly fixed relative to its geotechnical anchor point. Undersea mooring of human-engineered floating structures include a large number of offshore oil and gas platforms and, since 2008, a few floating wind turbines. Two common types of engineered design for anchoring floating structures include tension-leg and catenary loose mooring systems.[20]
Observational method
[edit]
First proposed by Karl Terzaghi and later discussed in a paper by Ralph B. Peck, the observational method is a managed process of construction control, monitoring, and review, which enables modifications to be incorporated during and after construction. The method aims to achieve a greater overall economy without compromising safety by creating designs based on the most probable conditions rather than the most unfavorable.[21] Using the observational method, gaps in available information are filled by measurements and investigation, which aid in assessing the behavior of the structure during construction, which in turn can be modified per the findings. The method was described by Peck as "learn-as-you-go".[22]
The observational method may be described as follows:[22]
General exploration sufficient to establish the rough nature, pattern, and properties of deposits.
Assessment of the most probable conditions and the most unfavorable conceivable deviations.
Creating the design based on a working hypothesis of behavior anticipated under the most probable conditions.
Selection of quantities to be observed as construction proceeds and calculating their anticipated values based on the working hypothesis under the most unfavorable conditions.
Selection, in advance, of a course of action or design modification for every foreseeable significant deviation of the observational findings from those predicted.
Measurement of quantities and evaluation of actual conditions.
Design modification per actual conditions
The observational method is suitable for construction that has already begun when an unexpected development occurs or when a failure or accident looms or has already happened. It is unsuitable for projects whose design cannot be altered during construction.[22]
See also
[edit]
Engineering portal
Civil engineering
Deep Foundations Institute
Earthquake engineering
Earth structure
Effective stress
Engineering geology
Geological Engineering
Geoprofessions
Hydrogeology
International Society for Soil Mechanics and Geotechnical Engineering
^ abBudhu, Muni (2007). Soil Mechanics and Foundations. John Wiley & Sons, Inc. ISBN 978-0-471-43117-6.
^ abDisturbed soil properties and geotechnical design, Schofield, Andrew N., Thomas Telford, 2006. ISBN 0-7277-2982-9
^Guerriero V., Mazzoli S. (2021). "Theory of Effective Stress in Soil and Rock and Implications for Fracturing Processes: A Review". Geosciences. 11 (3): 119. Bibcode:2021Geosc..11..119G. doi:10.3390/geosciences11030119.
^Soil Mechanics, Lambe, T.William and Whitman, Robert V., Massachusetts Institute of Technology, John Wiley & Sons., 1969. ISBN 0-471-51192-7
^Soil Behavior and Critical State Soil Mechanics, Wood, David Muir, Cambridge University Press, 1990. ISBN 0-521-33782-8
^Terzaghi, K., Peck, R.B. and Mesri, G. (1996), Soil Mechanics in Engineering Practice 3rd Ed., John Wiley & Sons, Inc. ISBN 0-471-08658-4
^Holtz, R. and Kovacs, W. (1981), An Introduction to Geotechnical Engineering, Prentice-Hall, Inc. ISBN 0-13-484394-0
^Deep Scan Tech (2023): Deep Scan Tech uncovers hidden structures at the site of Denmark's tallest building.
^"Geofrost Coring". GEOFROST. Retrieved 20 November 2020.
^ abHan, Jie (2015). Principles and Practice of Ground Improvement. Wiley. ISBN 9781118421307.
^RAJU, V. R. (2010). Ground Improvement Technologies and Case Histories. Singapore: Research Publishing Services. p. 809. ISBN 978-981-08-3124-0. Ground Improvement – Principles And Applications In Asia.
^Pariseau, William G. (2011). Design analysis in rock mechanics. CRC Press.
^Hegde, A.M. and Palsule P.S. (2020), Performance of Geosynthetics Reinforced Subgrade Subjected to Repeated Vehicle Loads: Experimental and Numerical Studies. Front. Built Environ. 6:15. https://www.frontiersin.org/articles/10.3389/fbuil.2020.00015/full.
^Koerner, Robert M. (2012). Designing with Geosynthetics (6th Edition, Vol. 1 ed.). Xlibris. ISBN 9781462882892.
^ abDean, E.T.R. (2010). Offshore Geotechnical Engineering – Principles and Practice. Thomas Telford, Reston, VA, 520 p.
^Randolph, M. and Gourvenec, S., 2011. Offshore geotechnical engineering. Spon Press, N.Y., 550 p.
^Das, B.M., 2010. Principles of geotechnical engineering. Cengage Learning, Stamford, 666 p.
^Atkinson, J., 2007. The mechanics of soils and foundations. Taylor & Francis, N.Y., 442 p.
^ Floating Offshore Wind Turbines: Responses in a Sea state – Pareto Optimal Designs and Economic Assessment, P. Sclavounos et al., October 2007.
^Nicholson, D, Tse, C and Penny, C. (1999). The Observational Method in ground engineering – principles and applications. Report 185, CIRIA, London.
^ abcPeck, R.B (1969). Advantages and limitations of the observational method in applied soil mechanics, Geotechnique, 19, No. 1, pp. 171-187.
References
[edit]
Bates and Jackson, 1980, Glossary of Geology: American Geological Institute.
Krynine and Judd, 1957, Principles of Engineering Geology and Geotechnics: McGraw-Hill, New York.
Ventura, Pierfranco, 2019, Fondazioni, Volume 1, Modellazioni statiche e sismiche, Hoepli, Milano
Holtz, R. and Kovacs, W. (1981), An Introduction to Geotechnical Engineering, Prentice-Hall, Inc. ISBN 0-13-484394-0
Bowles, J. (1988), Foundation Analysis and Design, McGraw-Hill Publishing Company. ISBN 0-07-006776-7
Cedergren, Harry R. (1977), Seepage, Drainage, and Flow Nets, Wiley. ISBN 0-471-14179-8
Kramer, Steven L. (1996), Geotechnical Earthquake Engineering, Prentice-Hall, Inc. ISBN 0-13-374943-6
Freeze, R.A. & Cherry, J.A., (1979), Groundwater, Prentice-Hall. ISBN 0-13-365312-9
Lunne, T. & Long, M.,(2006), Review of long seabed samplers and criteria for new sampler design, Marine Geology, Vol 226, p. 145–165
Mitchell, James K. & Soga, K. (2005), Fundamentals of Soil Behavior 3rd ed., John Wiley & Sons, Inc. ISBN 978-0-471-46302-3
Rajapakse, Ruwan., (2005), "Pile Design and Construction", 2005. ISBN 0-9728657-1-3
Fang, H.-Y. and Daniels, J. (2005) Introductory Geotechnical Engineering : an environmental perspective, Taylor & Francis. ISBN 0-415-30402-4
NAVFAC (Naval Facilities Engineering Command) (1986) Design Manual 7.01, Soil Mechanics, US Government Printing Office
NAVFAC (Naval Facilities Engineering Command) (1986) Design Manual 7.02, Foundations and Earth Structures, US Government Printing Office
NAVFAC (Naval Facilities Engineering Command) (1983) Design Manual 7.03, Soil Dynamics, Deep Stabilization and Special Geotechnical Construction, US Government Printing Office
Terzaghi, K., Peck, R.B. and Mesri, G. (1996), Soil Mechanics in Engineering Practice 3rd Ed., John Wiley & Sons, Inc. ISBN 0-471-08658-4
Santamarina, J.C., Klein, K.A., & Fam, M.A. (2001), "Soils and Waves: Particulate Materials Behavior, Characterization and Process Monitoring", Wiley, ISBN 978-0-471-49058-6
Firuziaan, M. and Estorff, O., (2002), "Simulation of the Dynamic Behavior of Bedding-Foundation-Soil in the Time Domain", Springer Verlag.
USS was excellent. They are honest, straightforward, trustworthy, and conscientious. They thoughtfully removed the flowers and flower bulbs to dig where they needed in the yard, replanted said flowers and spread the extra dirt to fill in an area of the yard. We've had other services from different companies and our yard was really a mess after. They kept the job site meticulously clean. The crew was on time and friendly. I'd recommend them any day! Thanks to Jessie and crew.
It was a pleasure to work with Rick and his crew. From the beginning, Rick listened to my concerns and what I wished to accomplish. Out of the 6 contractors that quoted the project, Rick seemed the MOST willing to accommodate my wishes. His pricing was definitely more than fair as well.
I had 10 push piers installed to stabilize and lift an addition of my house. The project commenced at the date that Rick had disclosed initially and it was completed within the same time period expected (based on Rick's original assessment). The crew was well informed, courteous, and hard working. They were not loud (even while equipment was being utilized) and were well spoken. My neighbors were very impressed on how polite they were when they entered / exited my property (saying hello or good morning each day when they crossed paths).
You can tell they care about the customer concerns. They ensured that the property would be put back as clean as possible by placing MANY sheets of plywood down prior to excavating. They compacted the dirt back in the holes extremely well to avoid large stock piles of soils. All the while, the main office was calling me to discuss updates and expectations of completion. They provided waivers of lien, certificates of insurance, properly acquired permits, and JULIE locates. From a construction background, I can tell you that I did not see any flaws in the way they operated and this an extremely professional company.
The pictures attached show the push piers added to the foundation (pictures 1, 2 & 3), the amount of excavation (picture 4), and the restoration after dirt was placed back in the pits and compacted (pictures 5, 6 & 7). Please notice that they also sealed two large cracks and steel plated these cracks from expanding further (which you can see under my sliding glass door).
I, as well as my wife, are extremely happy that we chose United Structural Systems for our contractor. I would happily tell any of my friends and family to use this contractor should the opportunity arise!
USS did an amazing job on my underpinning on my house, they were also very courteous to the proximity of my property line next to my neighbor. They kept things in order with all the dirt/mud they had to excavate. They were done exactly in the timeframe they indicated, and the contract was very details oriented with drawings of what would be done. Only thing that would have been nice, is they left my concrete a little muddy with boot prints but again, all-in-all a great job
What a fantastic experience! Owner Rick Thomas is a trustworthy professional. Nick and the crew are hard working, knowledgeable and experienced. I interviewed every company in the area, big and small. A homeowner never wants to hear that they have foundation issues. Out of every company, I trusted USS the most, and it paid off in the end. Highly recommend.