Evaluating Carrier Options for Mobile Home Air Conditioning

Evaluating Carrier Options for Mobile Home Air Conditioning

Overview of HVAC needs specific to mobile homes

When it comes to choosing a carrier for air conditioning in a mobile home, several factors need careful consideration to ensure that you make the best possible decision for your specific needs. Mobile homes come with unique challenges and requirements when it comes to installing an efficient and effective air conditioning system. Filters in mobile homes should be replaced regularly to maintain air quality mobile home hvac units temperature. Therefore, evaluating carrier options must be done with a keen eye on various critical aspects.


Firstly, one of the most important factors is the size and capacity of the air conditioning unit. Mobile homes generally have limited space, so selecting a unit that fits well within this space without sacrificing performance is crucial. The capacity of the air conditioner should align with the size of your home to ensure optimal cooling without excessive energy consumption. A unit that is too large may lead to unnecessary energy use and higher costs, while one that is too small may struggle to cool your home efficiently.


Energy efficiency is another critical factor to consider. With rising energy costs and an increased focus on environmental sustainability, choosing an energy-efficient carrier can save you money in the long run while reducing your carbon footprint. Look for units with high SEER (Seasonal Energy Efficiency Ratio) ratings, as these indicate better energy performance.


The climate in which you live also plays a significant role in determining which air conditioning carrier would be most suitable for your mobile home. Different climates demand different features; for instance, if you reside in a particularly humid area, selecting a unit with superior dehumidification capabilities would be beneficial.


Another essential aspect is the ease of installation and maintenance. Mobile homes often have unique layouts that can complicate installation processes. It's wise to choose a carrier known for straightforward installation procedures and easy maintenance requirements. This will not only save you time but also reduce potential service costs over time.


Reliability and durability are paramount when selecting any major appliance, including air conditioners. Research brands recognized for their reliability and longevity in service life. Reading customer reviews and consulting consumer reports can provide insights into how various carriers perform over extended periods under different conditions.


Price naturally remains an influential factor in decision-making processes; however, it should not overshadow other considerations like quality or efficiency. While it might be tempting to opt for cheaper alternatives upfront, investing slightly more initially could result in significant savings down the line through reduced repair costs or lower utility bills due to better efficiency.


Lastly, consider additional features such as smart technology compatibility or noise levels if these are important to you or could enhance your comfort at home significantly.


In conclusion, evaluating carrier options for mobile home air conditioning involves balancing multiple factors-size and capacity suitability, energy efficiency ratings, climate-specific needs, installation ease along with maintenance simplicity-and weighing them against cost considerations while factoring in brand reliability along with any extra convenience features desired by homeowners today seeking improved living environments amidst varying climatic circumstances encountered across diverse locales globally!

When considering air conditioning systems for mobile homes, it's essential to evaluate various options to ensure a comfortable living environment. Mobile homes present unique challenges in climate control due to their compact size and structural design, which necessitates choosing an appropriate air conditioning system that caters to these specific needs.


One of the most popular types of air conditioning systems for mobile homes is the ductless mini-split system. This system is highly efficient and versatile, making it ideal for the limited space in mobile homes. Ductless mini-splits consist of an outdoor compressor and one or more indoor units that can be mounted on walls or ceilings. The absence of ductwork simplifies installation and reduces energy loss, making this option not only space-efficient but also cost-effective over time.


Another suitable choice is a packaged air conditioning unit. These systems house all components-compressor, condenser, and evaporator-in a single unit typically installed outside the home. Packaged units are particularly useful for mobile homes with limited space inside since they require minimal indoor equipment. They offer powerful cooling capabilities but demand adequate exterior space for setup.


Window air conditioners are also common in mobile homes due to their affordability and ease of installation. These units fit into window frames and provide sufficient cooling for smaller spaces. However, they may not be as energy-efficient as other systems mentioned here, making them better suited for temporary or supplemental use rather than as a primary source of air conditioning.


Finally, portable air conditioners serve as another viable option, especially when flexibility is crucial. These units can be moved from room to room based on where cooling is needed the most. While convenient, they generally offer less power compared to fixed installations and may not be ideal for larger mobile homes or those located in areas with extreme heat.


In evaluating carrier options for mobile home air conditioning, homeowners must consider factors like energy efficiency, installation complexity, cost-effectiveness over time, and specific climate conditions where the mobile home resides. Each type has its advantages tailored to different needs; hence it's important that decisions are guided by individual requirements alongside expert advice from HVAC professionals.


Ultimately, selecting an appropriate air conditioning system involves balancing budget considerations with practical aspects such as space constraints and desired comfort levels within your mobile home environment-ensuring you enjoy optimal living conditions regardless of external temperatures.

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Understanding Financing Options for Mobile Home HVAC

In the quest to create a comfortable living environment within mobile homes, selecting the right air conditioning system is paramount. As residents of these compact domiciles seek efficient and environmentally conscious solutions, evaluating carrier options for mobile home air conditioning becomes crucial. This consideration involves understanding the energy efficiency and environmental impact of different carriers, ensuring that choices made today do not compromise future sustainability.


Energy efficiency stands as a critical factor in determining an appropriate air conditioning carrier. Mobile homes, often characterized by limited space and insulation challenges, require systems that can deliver optimal cooling without excessive energy consumption. Modern air conditioning units have evolved significantly in this regard, with many manufacturers focusing on enhancing their energy performance. High-efficiency models often bear Energy Star ratings or similar certifications which indicate superior performance compared to standard models. These systems not only reduce electricity bills but also lessen the demand on power grids, contributing to broader environmental benefits.


The environmental impact of air conditioning carriers extends beyond just energy consumption; it encompasses the entire lifecycle of the unit from production to disposal. Traditional refrigerants used in older air conditioning systems have been notorious for their ozone-depleting properties and high global warming potential (GWP). However, advancements in technology have led to the development of more eco-friendly alternatives like R-32 and R-410A refrigerants. These modern refrigerants offer lower GWP values and are less harmful to the atmosphere, aligning with global initiatives aimed at mitigating climate change.


When evaluating carrier options for mobile home air conditioning, it is essential to consider both upfront costs and long-term savings. While high-efficiency units may come with a higher initial price tag, they often provide significant savings over time through reduced utility bills. Furthermore, investing in an environmentally friendly system can increase a mobile home's market value, appealing to an increasingly eco-conscious consumer base.


Additionally, regular maintenance plays a pivotal role in sustaining both energy efficiency and environmental integrity of air conditioning systems. Proper servicing ensures that units operate at peak performance levels while minimizing refrigerant leaks or other issues that could exacerbate environmental harm.


In conclusion, as we navigate towards more sustainable living practices, evaluating carrier options for mobile home air conditioning necessitates a balanced consideration of energy efficiency and environmental impact. By choosing high-performance systems equipped with environmentally safe refrigerants and committing to regular maintenance schedules, mobile home residents can enjoy comfortable indoor climates without compromising ecological well-being. Such conscientious decisions help pave the way for greener living spaces that respect both our immediate needs and those of future generations.

Understanding Financing Options for Mobile Home HVAC

Explanation of common financing packages available

When evaluating carrier options for mobile home air conditioning, the decision often hinges on a careful cost analysis that weighs the initial investment against potential long-term savings. This consideration is particularly pertinent in today's climate, where energy efficiency and sustainability are becoming increasingly important to homeowners. Understanding both immediate and future financial implications can guide one towards an informed choice that aligns with both budget constraints and long-term comfort goals.


The initial investment in an air conditioning system encompasses several components: the purchase price of the unit, installation costs, and any additional expenses related to upgrading electrical systems or making structural modifications to accommodate the unit. The range of available units varies significantly in terms of capacity, brand reputation, technology sophistication, and efficiency ratings. Opting for a high-efficiency model may entail a higher upfront cost compared to standard units, yet this is where considerations of long-term savings come into play.


Long-term savings primarily arise from reduced energy consumption due to higher efficiency ratings. Air conditioners with advanced features like variable-speed compressors or smart thermostats can adjust cooling output according to demand, thereby minimizing wasted energy. Over time, these efficiencies translate into lower utility bills-a significant factor given that air conditioning represents a substantial portion of electricity usage during warmer months.


Moreover, high-quality systems tend to have longer lifespans and require fewer repairs over time. This durability not only enhances value but also mitigates the likelihood of unexpected maintenance costs disrupting one's financial planning. Additionally, newer models often include warranties that cover significant components for extended periods, providing peace of mind against unforeseen expenses.


Environmental impact is another aspect intertwined with financial considerations when evaluating air conditioning options. Systems engineered for superior energy efficiency typically produce fewer greenhouse gas emissions-a priority for environmentally conscious consumers aiming to reduce their carbon footprint while enjoying modern comforts.


Nevertheless, achieving long-term savings involves more than just selecting an efficient unit; it requires ongoing maintenance practices such as regular filter changes and professional servicing to ensure optimal performance throughout its lifespan.


In conclusion, while the initial investment in a mobile home air conditioning system might seem daunting at first glance-especially when opting for higher-end models-the potential for significant long-term savings cannot be overlooked. By balancing upfront costs with expected reductions in energy expenditures and factoring in environmental benefits alongside enhanced system reliability, homeowners can make decisions that offer both immediate comfort and sustained economic advantages over time. This comprehensive approach ensures that one's choice not only meets current needs but also aligns with future aspirations for sustainable living within budgetary means.

Key factors to consider when choosing a financing option

The installation process of air conditioning in mobile homes presents a unique set of challenges, particularly when evaluating carrier options. Mobile homes, by their very nature, are designed differently from traditional houses, and this distinction plays a crucial role in determining the most suitable air conditioning solution.


One of the primary considerations is the structural limitations inherent in mobile homes. These structures often have less insulation compared to conventional homes, which can significantly affect cooling efficiency. Moreover, mobile homes typically have limited space for ductwork and other HVAC components, making it essential to choose a system that fits seamlessly within these spatial constraints. Carrier options must be evaluated carefully to ensure they can be installed without extensive modifications to the home's infrastructure.


Another challenge lies in the electrical capacity of mobile homes. Many older models may not have the necessary wiring or circuit breakers to support high-energy-consuming air conditioning units. This limitation necessitates either an upgrade of the electrical system or selecting a more energy-efficient unit that operates within existing capabilities. Carrier options offering high-efficiency units with lower energy demands might prove advantageous here.


Moreover, ventilation is another critical factor when considering air conditioning systems for mobile homes. Proper ventilation ensures efficient circulation of cool air and helps maintain indoor air quality. Mobile homes often require specialized solutions such as packaged terminal air conditioners (PTACs) or mini-split systems that offer flexible installation options and do not rely on traditional ductwork.


Cost-effectiveness is always a significant consideration. The initial purchase price, installation costs, and long-term energy expenses all contribute to the overall cost-benefit analysis when selecting an AC unit carrier for a mobile home. It's important to weigh these factors against each other; for instance, investing in a slightly more expensive but highly efficient unit could result in substantial savings over time due to reduced energy consumption.


Finally, ease of maintenance should not be overlooked during evaluation. Carrier options that offer robust customer service and readily available replacement parts can greatly reduce downtime if issues arise with the system after installation.


In conclusion, choosing an appropriate carrier option for air conditioning in mobile homes requires careful consideration of several factors: structural limitations, electrical capacity, ventilation needs, cost-effectiveness, and ease of maintenance. By addressing each challenge thoughtfully and systematically evaluating potential solutions against these criteria, homeowners can ensure they select an air conditioning system that optimally meets their specific requirements while enhancing comfort and efficiency within their living spaces.

Personal Loans for HVAC Systems

When evaluating carrier options for mobile home air conditioning, two critical factors often come into play: maintenance requirements and carrier support services. These elements not only influence the immediate decision-making process but also have long-term implications for the efficiency, reliability, and overall satisfaction with the chosen air conditioning system.


Maintenance requirements are a fundamental consideration when selecting an air conditioning system for a mobile home. Unlike traditional homes, mobile homes often have unique spatial constraints and can be more susceptible to environmental factors such as dust and temperature fluctuations. Therefore, choosing a system that is designed to withstand these conditions with minimal maintenance is crucial. Opting for a unit that requires frequent servicing can result in increased costs and inconvenience over time. It's essential to thoroughly understand the manufacturer's recommended maintenance schedule and ensure it aligns with your capacity for upkeep.


Moreover, some systems come equipped with advanced features that simplify maintenance tasks. For instance, self-cleaning filters or alerts that notify homeowners when servicing is due can be invaluable in maintaining optimal performance without requiring extensive technical knowledge or intervention. When evaluating options, consider whether these features justify any additional upfront costs by potentially reducing long-term maintenance burdens.


Equally important are the carrier support services associated with the air conditioning systems under consideration. The quality of customer service provided by the manufacturer or supplier can significantly affect user experience post-purchase. Reliable support services ensure that should any issues arise-be it installation challenges or operational malfunctions-they are resolved promptly and efficiently.


Ideal carrier support services offer comprehensive warranty coverage, responsive customer service channels, and access to certified technicians who can perform necessary repairs or replacements swiftly. Additionally, some carriers provide online resources such as troubleshooting guides and video tutorials which empower homeowners to address minor issues independently without professional assistance.


Evaluating carrier options also involves assessing their reputation within the industry. Researching customer reviews and testimonials can provide valuable insights into how effectively a company supports its products after sale-a crucial factor that often distinguishes exceptional carriers from those offering merely adequate service.


In conclusion, when selecting an air conditioning system for your mobile home, it's imperative to balance initial purchase considerations with ongoing maintenance needs and available support services. By prioritizing these aspects during your evaluation process, you ensure not only comfort but also peace of mind knowing you've made a well-informed decision tailored specifically to meet both current demands and future contingencies of mobile living environments.

 

External heat exchanger of an air-source heat pump for both heating and cooling
Mitsubishi heat pump interior air handler wall unit

A heat pump is a device that consumes energy (usually electricity) to transfer heat from a cold heat sink to a hot heat sink. Specifically, the heat pump transfers thermal energy using a refrigeration cycle, cooling the cool space and warming the warm space.[1] In cold weather, a heat pump can move heat from the cool outdoors to warm a house (e.g. winter); the pump may also be designed to move heat from the house to the warmer outdoors in warm weather (e.g. summer). As they transfer heat rather than generating heat, they are more energy-efficient than other ways of heating or cooling a home.[2]

A gaseous refrigerant is compressed so its pressure and temperature rise. When operating as a heater in cold weather, the warmed gas flows to a heat exchanger in the indoor space where some of its thermal energy is transferred to that indoor space, causing the gas to condense to its liquid state. The liquified refrigerant flows to a heat exchanger in the outdoor space where the pressure falls, the liquid evaporates and the temperature of the gas falls. It is now colder than the temperature of the outdoor space being used as a heat source. It can again take up energy from the heat source, be compressed and repeat the cycle.

Air source heat pumps are the most common models, while other types include ground source heat pumps, water source heat pumps and exhaust air heat pumps.[3] Large-scale heat pumps are also used in district heating systems.[4]

The efficiency of a heat pump is expressed as a coefficient of performance (COP), or seasonal coefficient of performance (SCOP). The higher the number, the more efficient a heat pump is. For example, an air-to-water heat pump that produces 6kW at a SCOP of 4.62 will give over 4kW of energy into a heating system for every kilowatt of energy that the heat pump uses itself to operate. When used for space heating, heat pumps are typically more energy-efficient than electric resistance and other heaters.

Because of their high efficiency and the increasing share of fossil-free sources in electrical grids, heat pumps are playing a role in climate change mitigation.[5][6] Consuming 1 kWh of electricity, they can transfer 1[7] to 4.5 kWh of thermal energy into a building. The carbon footprint of heat pumps depends on how electricity is generated, but they usually reduce emissions.[8] Heat pumps could satisfy over 80% of global space and water heating needs with a lower carbon footprint than gas-fired condensing boilers: however, in 2021 they only met 10%.[4]

Principle of operation

[edit]
A: indoor compartment, B: outdoor compartment, I: insulation, 1: condenser, 2: expansion valve, 3: evaporator, 4: compressor

Heat flows spontaneously from a region of higher temperature to a region of lower temperature. Heat does not flow spontaneously from lower temperature to higher, but it can be made to flow in this direction if work is performed. The work required to transfer a given amount of heat is usually much less than the amount of heat; this is the motivation for using heat pumps in applications such as the heating of water and the interior of buildings.[9]

The amount of work required to drive an amount of heat Q from a lower-temperature reservoir such as ambient air to a higher-temperature reservoir such as the interior of a building is: where

  • is the work performed on the working fluid by the heat pump's compressor.
  • is the heat transferred from the lower-temperature reservoir to the higher-temperature reservoir.
  • is the instantaneous coefficient of performance for the heat pump at the temperatures prevailing in the reservoirs at one instant.

The coefficient of performance of a heat pump is greater than one so the work required is less than the heat transferred, making a heat pump a more efficient form of heating than electrical resistance heating. As the temperature of the higher-temperature reservoir increases in response to the heat flowing into it, the coefficient of performance decreases, causing an increasing amount of work to be required for each unit of heat being transferred.[9]

The coefficient of performance, and the work required by a heat pump can be calculated easily by considering an ideal heat pump operating on the reversed Carnot cycle:

  • If the low-temperature reservoir is at a temperature of 270 K (−3 °C) and the interior of the building is at 280 K (7 °C) the relevant coefficient of performance is 27. This means only 1 joule of work is required to transfer 27 joules of heat from a reservoir at 270 K to another at 280 K. The one joule of work ultimately ends up as thermal energy in the interior of the building so for each 27 joules of heat that are removed from the low-temperature reservoir, 28 joules of heat are added to the building interior, making the heat pump even more attractive from an efficiency perspective.[note 1]
  • As the temperature of the interior of the building rises progressively to 300 K (27 °C) the coefficient of performance falls progressively to 9. This means each joule of work is responsible for transferring 9 joules of heat out of the low-temperature reservoir and into the building. Again, the 1 joule of work ultimately ends up as thermal energy in the interior of the building so 10 joules of heat are added to the building interior.[note 2]

This is the theoretical amount of heat pumped but in practice it will be less for various reasons, for example if the outside unit has been installed where there is not enough airflow. More data sharing with owners and academics—perhaps from heat meters—could improve efficiency in the long run.[11]

History

[edit]

Milestones:

1748
William Cullen demonstrates artificial refrigeration.[12]
1834
Jacob Perkins patents a design for a practical refrigerator using dimethyl ether.[13]
1852
Lord Kelvin describes the theory underlying heat pumps.[14]
1855–1857
Peter von Rittinger develops and builds the first heat pump.[15]
1877
In the period before 1875, heat pumps were for the time being pursued for vapour compression evaporation (open heat pump process) in salt works with their obvious advantages for saving wood and coal. In 1857, Peter von Rittinger was the first to try to implement the idea of vapor compression in a small pilot plant. Presumably inspired by Rittinger's experiments in Ebensee, Antoine-Paul Piccard from the University of Lausanne and the engineer J. H. Weibel from the Weibel–Briquet company in Geneva built the world's first really functioning vapor compression system with a two-stage piston compressor. In 1877 this first heat pump in Switzerland was installed in the Bex salt works.[14][16]
1928
Aurel Stodola constructs a closed-loop heat pump (water source from Lake Geneva) which provides heating for the Geneva city hall to this day.[17]
1937–1945
During the First World War, fuel prices were very high in Switzerland but it had plenty of hydropower.[14]: 18  In the period before and especially during the Second World War, when neutral Switzerland was completely surrounded by fascist-ruled countries, the coal shortage became alarming again. Thanks to their leading position in energy technology, the Swiss companies Sulzer, Escher Wyss and Brown Boveri built and put in operation around 35 heat pumps between 1937 and 1945. The main heat sources were lake water, river water, groundwater, and waste heat. Particularly noteworthy are the six historic heat pumps from the city of Zurich with heat outputs from 100 kW to 6 MW. An international milestone is the heat pump built by Escher Wyss in 1937/38 to replace the wood stoves in the City Hall of Zurich. To avoid noise and vibrations, a recently developed rotary piston compressor was used. This historic heat pump heated the town hall for 63 years until 2001. Only then was it replaced by a new, more efficient heat pump.[14]
1945
John Sumner, City Electrical Engineer for Norwich, installs an experimental water-source heat pump fed central heating system, using a nearby river to heat new Council administrative buildings. It had a seasonal efficiency ratio of 3.42, average thermal delivery of 147 kW, and peak output of 234 kW.[18]
1948
Robert C. Webber is credited as developing and building the first ground-source heat pump.[19]
1951
First large scale installation—the Royal Festival Hall in London is opened with a town gas-powered reversible water-source heat pump, fed by the Thames, for both winter heating and summer cooling needs.[18]
2019
The Kigali Amendment to phase out harmful refrigerants takes effect.

Types

[edit]

Air-source

[edit]
Heat pump on balcony of apartment

An air source heat pump (ASHP) is a heat pump that can absorb heat from air outside a building and release it inside; it uses the same vapor-compression refrigeration process and much the same equipment as an air conditioner, but in the opposite direction. ASHPs are the most common type of heat pump and, usually being smaller, tend to be used to heat individual houses or flats rather than blocks, districts or industrial processes.[20][21]

Air-to-air heat pumps provide hot or cold air directly to rooms, but do not usually provide hot water. Air-to-water heat pumps use radiators or underfloor heating to heat a whole house and are often also used to provide domestic hot water.

An ASHP can typically gain 4 kWh thermal energy from 1 kWh electric energy. They are optimized for flow temperatures between 30 and 40 °C (86 and 104 °F), suitable for buildings with heat emitters sized for low flow temperatures. With losses in efficiency, an ASHP can even provide full central heating with a flow temperature up to 80 °C (176 °F).[22]

As of 2023 about 10% of building heating worldwide is from ASHPs. They are the main way to phase out gas boilers (also known as "furnaces") from houses, to avoid their greenhouse gas emissions.[23]

Air-source heat pumps are used to move heat between two heat exchangers, one outside the building which is fitted with fins through which air is forced using a fan and the other which either directly heats the air inside the building or heats water which is then circulated around the building through radiators or underfloor heating which releases the heat to the building. These devices can also operate in a cooling mode where they extract heat via the internal heat exchanger and eject it into the ambient air using the external heat exchanger. Some can be used to heat water for washing which is stored in a domestic hot water tank.[24]

Air-source heat pumps are relatively easy and inexpensive to install, so are the most widely used type. In mild weather, coefficient of performance (COP) may be between 2 and 5, while at temperatures below around −8 °C (18 °F) an air-source heat pump may still achieve a COP of 1 to 4.[25]

While older air-source heat pumps performed relatively poorly at low temperatures and were better suited for warm climates, newer models with variable-speed compressors remain highly efficient in freezing conditions allowing for wide adoption and cost savings in places like Minnesota and Maine in the United States.[26]

Ground source

[edit]
 
A heat pump in combination with heat and cold storage

A ground source heat pump (also geothermal heat pump) is a heating/cooling system for buildings that use a type of heat pump to transfer heat to or from the ground, taking advantage of the relative constancy of temperatures of the earth through the seasons. Ground-source heat pumps (GSHPs) – or geothermal heat pumps (GHP), as they are commonly termed in North America – are among the most energy-efficient technologies for providing HVAC and water heating, using far less energy than can be achieved by burning a fuel in a boiler/furnace or by use of resistive electric heaters.

Efficiency is given as a coefficient of performance (CoP) which is typically in the range 3 – 6, meaning that the devices provide 3 – 6 units of heat for each unit of electricity used. Setup costs are higher than for other heating systems, due to the requirement to install ground loops over large areas or to drill bore holes, and for this reason, ground source is often suitable when new blocks of flats are built.[27] Otherwise air-source heat pumps are often used instead.

Heat recovery ventilation

[edit]

Exhaust air heat pumps extract heat from the exhaust air of a building and require mechanical ventilation. Two classes exist:

  • Exhaust air-air heat pumps transfer heat to intake air.
  • Exhaust air-water heat pumps transfer heat to a heating circuit that includes a tank of domestic hot water.

Solar-assisted

[edit]
 
Hybrid photovoltaic-thermal solar panels of a SAHP in an experimental installation at Department of Energy at Polytechnic of Milan

A solar-assisted heat pump (SAHP) is a machine that combines a heat pump and thermal solar panels and/or PV solar panels in a single integrated system.[28] Typically these two technologies are used separately (or only placing them in parallel) to produce hot water.[29] In this system the solar thermal panel performs the function of the low temperature heat source and the heat produced is used to feed the heat pump's evaporator.[30] The goal of this system is to get high coefficient of performance (COP) and then produce energy in a more efficient and less expensive way.

It is possible to use any type of solar thermal panel (sheet and tubes, roll-bond, heat pipe, thermal plates) or hybrid (mono/polycrystalline, thin film) in combination with the heat pump. The use of a hybrid panel is preferable because it allows covering a part of the electricity demand of the heat pump and reduce the power consumption and consequently the variable costs of the system.

Water-source

[edit]
Water-source heat exchanger being installed

A water-source heat pump works in a similar manner to a ground-source heat pump, except that it takes heat from a body of water rather than the ground. The body of water does, however, need to be large enough to be able to withstand the cooling effect of the unit without freezing or creating an adverse effect for wildlife.[31] The largest water-source heat pump was installed in the Danish town of Esbjerg in 2023.[32][33]

Others

[edit]

A thermoacoustic heat pump operates as a thermoacoustic heat engine without refrigerant but instead uses a standing wave in a sealed chamber driven by a loudspeaker to achieve a temperature difference across the chamber.[34]

Electrocaloric heat pumps are solid state.[35]

Applications

[edit]

The International Energy Agency estimated that, as of 2021, heat pumps installed in buildings have a combined capacity of more than 1000 GW.[4] They are used for heating, ventilation, and air conditioning (HVAC) and may also provide domestic hot water and tumble clothes drying.[36] The purchase costs are supported in various countries by consumer rebates.[37]

Space heating and sometimes also cooling

[edit]

In HVAC applications, a heat pump is typically a vapor-compression refrigeration device that includes a reversing valve and optimized heat exchangers so that the direction of heat flow (thermal energy movement) may be reversed. The reversing valve switches the direction of refrigerant through the cycle and therefore the heat pump may deliver either heating or cooling to a building.

Because the two heat exchangers, the condenser and evaporator, must swap functions, they are optimized to perform adequately in both modes. Therefore, the Seasonal Energy Efficiency Rating (SEER in the US) or European seasonal energy efficiency ratio of a reversible heat pump is typically slightly less than those of two separately optimized machines. For equipment to receive the US Energy Star rating, it must have a rating of at least 14 SEER. Pumps with ratings of 18 SEER or above are considered highly efficient. The highest efficiency heat pumps manufactured are up to 24 SEER.[38]

Heating seasonal performance factor (in the US) or Seasonal Performance Factor (in Europe) are ratings of heating performance. The SPF is Total heat output per annum / Total electricity consumed per annum in other words the average heating COP over the year.[39]

Window mounted heat pump

[edit]
Saddle-style window mounted heat pump 3D sketch

Window mounted heat pumps run on standard 120v AC outlets and provide heating, cooling, and humidity control. They are more efficient with lower noise levels, condensation management, and a smaller footprint than window mounted air conditioners that just do cooling.[40]

Water heating

[edit]

In water heating applications, heat pumps may be used to heat or preheat water for swimming pools, homes or industry. Usually heat is extracted from outdoor air and transferred to an indoor water tank.[41][42]

District heating

[edit]

Large (megawatt-scale) heat pumps are used for district heating.[43] However as of 2022 about 90% of district heat is from fossil fuels.[44] In Europe, heat pumps account for a mere 1% of heat supply in district heating networks but several countries have targets to decarbonise their networks between 2030 and 2040.[4] Possible sources of heat for such applications are sewage water, ambient water (e.g. sea, lake and river water), industrial waste heat, geothermal energy, flue gas, waste heat from district cooling and heat from solar seasonal thermal energy storage.[45] Large-scale heat pumps for district heating combined with thermal energy storage offer high flexibility for the integration of variable renewable energy. Therefore, they are regarded as a key technology for limiting climate change by phasing out fossil fuels.[45][46] They are also a crucial element of systems which can both heat and cool districts.[47]

Industrial heating

[edit]

There is great potential to reduce the energy consumption and related greenhouse gas emissions in industry by application of industrial heat pumps, for example for process heat.[48][49] Short payback periods of less than 2 years are possible, while achieving a high reduction of CO2 emissions (in some cases more than 50%).[50][51] Industrial heat pumps can heat up to 200 °C, and can meet the heating demands of many light industries.[52][53] In Europe alone, 15 GW of heat pumps could be installed in 3,000 facilities in the paper, food and chemicals industries.[4]

Performance

[edit]

The performance of a heat pump is determined by the ability of the pump to extract heat from a low temperature environment (the source) and deliver it to a higher temperature environment (the sink).[54] Performance varies, depending on installation details, temperature differences, site elevation, location on site, pipe runs, flow rates, and maintenance.

In general, heat pumps work most efficiently (that is, the heat output produced for a given energy input) when the difference between the heat source and the heat sink is small. When using a heat pump for space or water heating, therefore, the heat pump will be most efficient in mild conditions, and decline in efficiency on very cold days. Performance metrics supplied to consumers attempt to take this variation into account.

Common performance metrics are the SEER (in cooling mode) and seasonal coefficient of performance (SCOP) (commonly used just for heating), although SCOP can be used for both modes of operation.[54] Larger values of either metric indicate better performance.[54] When comparing the performance of heat pumps, the term performance is preferred to efficiency, with coefficient of performance (COP) being used to describe the ratio of useful heat movement per work input.[54] An electrical resistance heater has a COP of 1.0, which is considerably lower than a well-designed heat pump which will typically have a COP of 3 to 5 with an external temperature of 10 °C and an internal temperature of 20 °C. Because the ground is a constant temperature source, a ground-source heat pump is not subjected to large temperature fluctuations, and therefore is the most energy-efficient type of heat pump.[54]

The "seasonal coefficient of performance" (SCOP) is a measure of the aggregate energy efficiency measure over a period of one year which is dependent on regional climate.[54] One framework for this calculation is given by the Commission Regulation (EU) No. 813/2013.[55]

A heat pump's operating performance in cooling mode is characterized in the US by either its energy efficiency ratio (EER) or seasonal energy efficiency ratio (SEER), both of which have units of BTU/(h·W) (note that 1 BTU/(h·W) = 0.293 W/W) and larger values indicate better performance.

COP variation with output temperature
Pump type and source Typical use 35 °C
(e.g. heated screed floor)
45 °C
(e.g. heated screed floor)
55 °C
(e.g. heated timber floor)
65 °C
(e.g. radiator or DHW)
75 °C
(e.g. radiator and DHW)
85 °C
(e.g. radiator and DHW)
High-efficiency air-source heat pump (ASHP), air at −20 °C[56]   2.2 2.0 ‐ ‐ ‐ ‐
Two-stage ASHP, air at −20 °C[57] Low source temperature 2.4 2.2 1.9 ‐ ‐ ‐
High-efficiency ASHP, air at 0 °C[56] Low output temperature 3.8 2.8 2.2 2.0 ‐ ‐
Prototype transcritical CO
2
(R744) heat pump with tripartite gas cooler, source at 0 °C[58]
High output temperature 3.3 ‐ ‐ 4.2 ‐ 3.0
Ground-source heat pump (GSHP), water at 0 °C[56]   5.0 3.7 2.9 2.4 ‐ ‐
GSHP, ground at 10 °C[56] Low output temperature 7.2 5.0 3.7 2.9 2.4 ‐
Theoretical Carnot cycle limit, source −20 °C   5.6 4.9 4.4 4.0 3.7 3.4
Theoretical Carnot cycle limit, source 0 °C   8.8 7.1 6.0 5.2 4.6 4.2
Theoretical Lorentzen cycle limit (CO
2
pump), return fluid 25 °C, source 0 °C[58]
  10.1 8.8 7.9 7.1 6.5 6.1
Theoretical Carnot cycle limit, source 10 °C   12.3 9.1 7.3 6.1 5.4 4.8

Carbon footprint

[edit]

The carbon footprint of heat pumps depends on their individual efficiency and how electricity is produced. An increasing share of low-carbon energy sources such as wind and solar will lower the impact on the climate.

heating system emissions of energy source efficiency resulting emissions for thermal energy
heat pump with onshore wind power 11 gCO2/kWh[59] 400% (COP=4) 3 gCO2/kWh
heat pump with global electricity mix 436 gCO2/kWh[60] (2022) 400% (COP=4) 109 gCO2/kWh
natural-gas thermal (high efficiency) 201 gCO2/kWh[61] 90%[citation needed] 223 gCO2/kWh
heat pump
electricity by lignite (old power plant)
and low performance
1221 gCO2/kWh[61] 300% (COP=3) 407 gCO2/kWh

In most settings, heat pumps will reduce CO2 emissions compared to heating systems powered by fossil fuels.[62] In regions accounting for 70% of world energy consumption, the emissions savings of heat pumps compared with a high-efficiency gas boiler are on average above 45% and reach 80% in countries with cleaner electricity mixes.[4] These values can be improved by 10 percentage points, respectively, with alternative refrigerants. In the United States, 70% of houses could reduce emissions by installing a heat pump.[63][4] The rising share of renewable electricity generation in many countries is set to increase the emissions savings from heat pumps over time.[4]

Heating systems powered by green hydrogen are also low-carbon and may become competitors, but are much less efficient due to the energy loss associated with hydrogen conversion, transport and use. In addition, not enough green hydrogen is expected to be available before the 2030s or 2040s.[64][65]

Operation

[edit]
Figure 2: Temperature–entropy diagram of the vapor-compression cycle
An internal view of the outdoor unit of an Ecodan air source heat pump
Large heat pump setup for a commercial building
Wiring and connections to a central air unit inside

Vapor-compression uses a circulating refrigerant as the medium which absorbs heat from one space, compresses it thereby increasing its temperature before releasing it in another space. The system normally has eight main components: a compressor, a reservoir, a reversing valve which selects between heating and cooling mode, two thermal expansion valves (one used when in heating mode and the other when used in cooling mode) and two heat exchangers, one associated with the external heat source/sink and the other with the interior. In heating mode the external heat exchanger is the evaporator and the internal one being the condenser; in cooling mode the roles are reversed.

Circulating refrigerant enters the compressor in the thermodynamic state known as a saturated vapor[66] and is compressed to a higher pressure, resulting in a higher temperature as well. The hot, compressed vapor is then in the thermodynamic state known as a superheated vapor and it is at a temperature and pressure at which it can be condensed with either cooling water or cooling air flowing across the coil or tubes. In heating mode this heat is used to heat the building using the internal heat exchanger, and in cooling mode this heat is rejected via the external heat exchanger.

The condensed, liquid refrigerant, in the thermodynamic state known as a saturated liquid, is next routed through an expansion valve where it undergoes an abrupt reduction in pressure. That pressure reduction results in the adiabatic flash evaporation of a part of the liquid refrigerant. The auto-refrigeration effect of the adiabatic flash evaporation lowers the temperature of the liquid and-vapor refrigerant mixture to where it is colder than the temperature of the enclosed space to be refrigerated.

The cold mixture is then routed through the coil or tubes in the evaporator. A fan circulates the warm air in the enclosed space across the coil or tubes carrying the cold refrigerant liquid and vapor mixture. That warm air evaporates the liquid part of the cold refrigerant mixture. At the same time, the circulating air is cooled and thus lowers the temperature of the enclosed space to the desired temperature. The evaporator is where the circulating refrigerant absorbs and removes heat which is subsequently rejected in the condenser and transferred elsewhere by the water or air used in the condenser.

To complete the refrigeration cycle, the refrigerant vapor from the evaporator is again a saturated vapor and is routed back into the compressor.

Over time, the evaporator may collect ice or water from ambient humidity. The ice is melted through defrosting cycle. An internal heat exchanger is either used to heat/cool the interior air directly or to heat water that is then circulated through radiators or underfloor heating circuit to either heat or cool the buildings.

Improvement of coefficient of performance by subcooling

[edit]

Heat input can be improved if the refrigerant enters the evaporator with a lower vapor content. This can be achieved by cooling the liquid refrigerant after condensation. The gaseous refrigerant condenses on the heat exchange surface of the condenser. To achieve a heat flow from the gaseous flow center to the wall of the condenser, the temperature of the liquid refrigerant must be lower than the condensation temperature.

Additional subcooling can be achieved by heat exchange between relatively warm liquid refrigerant leaving the condenser and the cooler refrigerant vapor emerging from the evaporator. The enthalpy difference required for the subcooling leads to the superheating of the vapor drawn into the compressor. When the increase in cooling achieved by subcooling is greater that the compressor drive input required to overcome the additional pressure losses, such a heat exchange improves the coefficient of performance.[67]

One disadvantage of the subcooling of liquids is that the difference between the condensing temperature and the heat-sink temperature must be larger. This leads to a moderately high pressure difference between condensing and evaporating pressure, whereby the compressor energy increases.

Refrigerant choice

[edit]

Pure refrigerants can be divided into organic substances (hydrocarbons (HCs), chlorofluorocarbons (CFCs), hydrochlorofluorocarbons (HCFCs), hydrofluorocarbons (HFCs), hydrofluoroolefins (HFOs), and HCFOs), and inorganic substances (ammonia (NH
3
), carbon dioxide (CO
2
), and water (H
2O
)[68]).[69] Their boiling points are usually below −25 °C.[70]

In the past 200 years, the standards and requirements for new refrigerants have changed. Nowadays low global warming potential (GWP) is required, in addition to all the previous requirements for safety, practicality, material compatibility, appropriate atmospheric life,[clarification needed] and compatibility with high-efficiency products. By 2022, devices using refrigerants with a very low GWP still have a small market share but are expected to play an increasing role due to enforced regulations,[71] as most countries have now ratified the Kigali Amendment to ban HFCs.[72] Isobutane (R600A) and propane (R290) are far less harmful to the environment than conventional hydrofluorocarbons (HFC) and are already being used in air-source heat pumps.[73] Propane may be the most suitable for high temperature heat pumps.[74] Ammonia (R717) and carbon dioxide (R-744) also have a low GWP. As of 2023 smaller CO
2
heat pumps are not widely available and research and development of them continues.[75] A 2024 report said that refrigerants with GWP are vulnerable to further international restrictions.[76]

Until the 1990s, heat pumps, along with fridges and other related products used chlorofluorocarbons (CFCs) as refrigerants, which caused major damage to the ozone layer when released into the atmosphere. Use of these chemicals was banned or severely restricted by the Montreal Protocol of August 1987.[77]

Replacements, including R-134a and R-410A, are hydrofluorocarbons (HFC) with similar thermodynamic properties with insignificant ozone depletion potential (ODP) but had problematic GWP.[78] HFCs are powerful greenhouse gases which contribute to climate change.[79][80] Dimethyl ether (DME) also gained in popularity as a refrigerant in combination with R404a.[81] More recent refrigerants include difluoromethane (R32) with a lower GWP, but still over 600.

refrigerant 20-year GWP 100-year GWP
R-290 propane[82] 0.072 0.02
R-600a isobutane   3[83]
R-32[82] 491 136
R-410a[84] 4705 2285
R-134a[84] 4060 1470
R-404a[84] 7258 4808

Devices with R-290 refrigerant (propane) are expected to play a key role in the future.[74][85] The 100-year GWP of propane, at 0.02, is extremely low and is approximately 7000 times less than R-32. However, the flammability of propane requires additional safety measures: the maximum safe charges have been set significantly lower than for lower flammability refrigerants (only allowing approximately 13.5 times less refrigerant in the system than R-32).[86][87][88] This means that R-290 is not suitable for all situations or locations. Nonetheless, by 2022, an increasing number of devices with R-290 were offered for domestic use, especially in Europe.[citation needed]

At the same time,[when?] HFC refrigerants still dominate the market. Recent government mandates have seen the phase-out of R-22 refrigerant. Replacements such as R-32 and R-410A are being promoted as environmentally friendly but still have a high GWP.[89] A heat pump typically uses 3 kg of refrigerant. With R-32 this amount still has a 20-year impact equivalent to 7 tons of CO2, which corresponds to two years of natural gas heating in an average household. Refrigerants with a high ODP have already been phased out.[citation needed]

Government incentives

[edit]

Financial incentives aim to protect consumers from high fossil gas costs and to reduce greenhouse gas emissions,[90] and are currently available in more than 30 countries around the world, covering more than 70% of global heating demand in 2021.[4]

Australia

[edit]

Food processors, brewers, petfood producers and other industrial energy users are exploring whether it is feasible to use renewable energy to produce industrial-grade heat. Process heating accounts for the largest share of onsite energy use in Australian manufacturing, with lower-temperature operations like food production particularly well-suited to transition to renewables.

To help producers understand how they could benefit from making the switch, the Australian Renewable Energy Agency (ARENA) provided funding to the Australian Alliance for Energy Productivity (A2EP) to undertake pre-feasibility studies at a range of sites around Australia, with the most promising locations advancing to full feasibility studies.[91]

In an effort to incentivize energy efficiency and reduce environmental impact, the Australian states of Victoria, New South Wales, and Queensland have implemented rebate programs targeting the upgrade of existing hot water systems. These programs specifically encourage the transition from traditional gas or electric systems to heat pump based systems.[92][93][94][95][96]

Canada

[edit]

In 2022, the Canada Greener Homes Grant[97] provides up to $5000 for upgrades (including certain heat pumps), and $600 for energy efficiency evaluations.

China

[edit]

Purchase subsidies in rural areas in the 2010s reduced burning coal for heating, which had been causing ill health.[98]

In the 2024 report by the International Energy Agency (IEA) titled "The Future of Heat Pumps in China," it is highlighted that China, as the world's largest market for heat pumps in buildings, plays a critical role in the global industry. The country accounts for over one-quarter of global sales, with a 12% increase in 2023 alone, despite a global sales dip of 3% the same year.[99]

Heat pumps are now used in approximately 8% of all heating equipment sales for buildings in China as of 2022, and they are increasingly becoming the norm in central and southern regions for both heating and cooling. Despite their higher upfront costs and relatively low awareness, heat pumps are favored for their energy efficiency, consuming three to five times less energy than electric heaters or fossil fuel-based solutions. Currently, decentralized heat pumps installed in Chinese buildings represent a quarter of the global installed capacity, with a total capacity exceeding 250 GW, which covers around 4% of the heating needs in buildings.[99]

Under the Announced Pledges Scenario (APS), which aligns with China's carbon neutrality goals, the capacity is expected to reach 1,400 GW by 2050, meeting 25% of heating needs. This scenario would require an installation of about 100 GW of heat pumps annually until 2050. Furthermore, the heat pump sector in China employs over 300,000 people, with employment numbers expected to double by 2050, underscoring the importance of vocational training for industry growth. This robust development in the heat pump market is set to play a significant role in reducing direct emissions in buildings by 30% and cutting PM2.5 emissions from residential heating by nearly 80% by 2030.[99][100]

European Union

[edit]

To speed up the deployment rate of heat pumps, the European Commission launched the Heat Pump Accelerator Platform in November 2024.[101] It will encourage industry experts, policymakers, and stakeholders to collaborate, share best practices and ideas, and jointly discuss measures that promote sustainable heating solutions.[102]

United Kingdom

[edit]

As of 2022: heat pumps have no Value Added Tax (VAT) although in Northern Ireland they are taxed at the reduced rate of 5% instead of the usual level of VAT of 20% for most other products.[103] As of 2022 the installation cost of a heat pump is more than a gas boiler, but with the "Boiler Upgrade Scheme"[104] government grant and assuming electricity/gas costs remain similar their lifetime costs would be similar on average.[105] However lifetime cost relative to a gas boiler varies considerably depending on several factors, such as the quality of the heat pump installation and the tariff used.[106] In 2024 England was criticised for still allowing new homes to be built with gas boilers, unlike some other counties where this is banned.[107]

United States

[edit]

The High-efficiency Electric Home Rebate Program was created in 2022 to award grants to State energy offices and Indian Tribes in order to establish state-wide high-efficiency electric-home rebates. Effective immediately, American households are eligible for a tax credit to cover the costs of buying and installing a heat pump, up to $2,000. Starting in 2023, low- and moderate-level income households will be eligible for a heat-pump rebate of up to $8,000.[108]

In 2022, more heat pumps were sold in the United States than natural gas furnaces.[109]

In November 2023 Biden's administration allocated 169 million dollars from the Inflation Reduction Act to speed up production of heat pumps. It used the Defense Production Act to do so, because according to the administration, energy that is better for the climate is also better for national security.[110]

Notes

[edit]
  1. ^ As explained in Coefficient of performance TheoreticalMaxCOP = (desiredIndoorTempC + 273) ÷ (desiredIndoorTempC - outsideTempC) = (7+273) ÷ (7 - (-3)) = 280÷10 = 28 [10]
  2. ^ As explained in Coefficient of performance TheoreticalMaxCOP = (desiredIndoorTempC + 273) ÷ (desiredIndoorTempC - outsideTempC) = (27+273) ÷ (27 - (-3)) = 300÷30 = 10[10]

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  79. ^ R-410A#Environmental effects.
  80. ^ Ecometrica.com (27 June 2012). "Calculation of green house gas potential of R-410A". Archived from the original on 13 July 2015. Retrieved 13 July 2015.
  81. ^ "R404 and DME Refrigerant blend as a new solution to limit global warming potential" (PDF). 14 March 2012. Archived from the original (PDF) on 14 March 2012.
  82. ^ a b IPCC_AR6_WG1_Ch7 2021, 7SM-26
  83. ^ LearnMetrics (12 May 2023). "List of Low GWP Refrigerants: 69 Refrigerants Below 500 GWP". LearnMetrics. Archived from the original on 10 June 2023. Retrieved 13 September 2023.
  84. ^ a b c "Global warming potential (GWP) of HFC refrigerants". iifiir.org. Archived from the original on 24 September 2023. Retrieved 13 September 2023.
  85. ^ Everitt, Neil (15 September 2023). "Qvantum plant has 1 million heat pump capacity". Cooling Post. Archived from the original on 24 September 2023. Retrieved 17 September 2023.
  86. ^ Miara, Marek (22 October 2019). "Heat Pumps with Climate-Friendly Refrigerant Developed for Indoor Installation". Fraunhofer ISE. Archived from the original on 20 February 2022. Retrieved 21 February 2022.
  87. ^ "Refrigerant Safety – About Refrigerant Safety, Toxicity and Flammability". Checkmark. Retrieved 17 April 2024.
  88. ^ "A2L – Mildly Flammable Refrigerants". ACR Journal. 1 September 2015. Retrieved 17 April 2024.
  89. ^ US Environmental Protection Agency, OAR (14 November 2014). "Phaseout of Ozone-Depleting Substances (ODS)". US EPA. Archived from the original on 24 September 2015. Retrieved 16 February 2020.
  90. ^ "Heat Pumps". IEA. Archived from the original on 17 September 2023. Retrieved 17 September 2023.
  91. ^ "Electrifying industrial processes with heat pumps". 22 March 2022. Archived from the original on 8 August 2022. Retrieved 9 August 2022.
  92. ^ Department of Energy, Environment and Climate Action, Victoria Government (Australia) (11 October 2023). "Hot water systems for businesses". Victoria Government.
  93. ^ Department of Energy, Environment and Climate Action (Australia), Victoria Government (23 September 2023). "Hot water systems for households". Victoria Government.
  94. ^ New South Wales Climate and Energy Action, New South Wales Government (Australia) (8 December 2023). "Upgrade your hot water system". NSW Government.
  95. ^ Australian Government, Queensland (5 October 2023). "Queensland Business Energy Saving and Transformation Rebates". Queensland Government.
  96. ^ Time To Save (21 November 2023). "Hot Water Rebates in Australia: A Detailed Guide For Businesses". Timetosave.
  97. ^ "Canada Greener Homes Grant". 17 March 2021. Archived from the original on 17 January 2022. Retrieved 17 January 2022.
  98. ^ "Coal fired boiler replacement in Beijing rural area". Archived from the original on 24 March 2023. Retrieved 14 September 2023.
  99. ^ a b c "Executive summary – The Future of Heat Pumps in China – Analysis". IEA. Retrieved 12 April 2024.
  100. ^ IEA (2024), The Future of Heat Pumps in China, IEA, Paris https://www.iea.org/reports/the-future-of-heat-pumps-in-china, Licence: CC BY 4.0
  101. ^ "The Heat Pump Accelerator Platform". European Commission. 2024. Retrieved 27 November 2024.
  102. ^ "Heat pumps". European Commission. 2024. Retrieved 27 November 2024.
  103. ^ "HMCR rates for goods and services". 11 July 2022. Archived from the original on 22 July 2022. Retrieved 24 August 2022.
  104. ^ "Apply for the Boiler Upgrade Scheme". Archived from the original on 19 September 2023. Retrieved 14 September 2023.
  105. ^ "BBC Radio 4 – Sliced Bread, Air Source Heat Pumps". BBC. Archived from the original on 30 April 2022. Retrieved 30 April 2022.
  106. ^ Lawrence, Karen (3 May 2024). "Air source heat pump costs and savings". Which?. Retrieved 7 June 2024.
  107. ^ "Clean Heat without the Hot Air: British and Dutch lessons and challenges". UKERC. Retrieved 7 June 2024.
  108. ^ Shao, Elena. "H. R. 5376 – Inflation Reduction Act of 2022". Congress.gov. U.S. Congress. Archived from the original on 17 November 2022. Retrieved 17 November 2022.
  109. ^ "As Heat Pumps Go Mainstream, a Big Question: Can They Handle Real Cold?". The New York Times. 22 February 2023. Archived from the original on 11 April 2023. Retrieved 11 April 2023.
  110. ^ Frazin, Rachel (17 November 2023). "Biden administration uses wartime authority to bolster energy efficient manufacturing". The Hill. Retrieved 29 November 2023.

Sources

[edit]

IPCC reports

[edit]
  • IPCC (2021). Masson-Delmotte, V.; Zhai, P.; Pirani, A.; Connors, S. L.; et al. (eds.). Climate Change 2021: The Physical Science Basis (PDF). Contribution of Working Group I to the Sixth Assessment Report of the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change. Cambridge University Press (In Press).
    • Forster, P.; Storelvmo, T.; Armour, K.; Collins, W. (2021). "Chapter 7: The Earth's energy budget, climate feedbacks, and climate sensitivity Supplementary Material" (PDF). IPCC AR6 WG1 2021.
  • IPCC (2018). Masson-Delmotte, V.; Zhai, P.; Pörtner, H.-O.; Roberts, D.; et al. (eds.). Global Warming of 1.5°C. An IPCC Special Report on the impacts of global warming of 1.5°C above pre-industrial levels and related global greenhouse gas emission pathways, in the context of strengthening the global response to the threat of climate change, sustainable development, and efforts to eradicate poverty (PDF). Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change. https://www.ipcc.ch/sr15/.
    • Rogelj, J.; Shindell, D.; Jiang, K.; Fifta, S.; et al. (2018). "Chapter 2: Mitigation Pathways Compatible with 1.5°C in the Context of Sustainable Development" (PDF). IPCC SR15 2018. pp. 93–174.
  • IPCC (2022). Shula, P. R.; Skea, J.; Slade, R.; Al Khourdajie, A.; et al. (eds.). Climate Change 2022: Mitigation of Climate Change (PDF). Contribution of Working Group III to the Sixth Assessment Report of the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change. Cambridge, UK and New York, New York, USA: Cambridge University Press (In Press). Archived from the original (PDF) on 4 April 2022. Retrieved 10 May 2022.
    • IPCC (2022). "Industry" (PDF). IPCC AR6 WG3 2022.

Other

[edit]
  • Quaschning, Volker. "Specific Carbon Dioxide Emissions of Various Fuels". Retrieved 22 February 2022.
[edit]
  • Media related to Heat pumps at Wikimedia Commons

 

Prefabricated house in Valencia, Spain.

A modular building is a prefabricated building that consists of repeated sections called modules.[1] Modularity involves constructing sections away from the building site, then delivering them to the intended site. Installation of the prefabricated sections is completed on site. Prefabricated sections are sometimes placed using a crane. The modules can be placed side-by-side, end-to-end, or stacked, allowing for a variety of configurations and styles. After placement, the modules are joined together using inter-module connections, also known as inter-connections. The inter-connections tie the individual modules together to form the overall building structure.[2]

Uses

[edit]
Modular home prefab sections to be placed on the foundation

Modular buildings may be used for long-term, temporary or permanent facilities, such as construction camps, schools and classrooms, civilian and military housing, and industrial facilities. Modular buildings are used in remote and rural areas where conventional construction may not be reasonable or possible, for example, the Halley VI accommodation pods used for a BAS Antarctic expedition.[3] Other uses have included churches, health care facilities, sales and retail offices, fast food restaurants and cruise ship construction. They can also be used in areas that have weather concerns, such as hurricanes. Modular buildings are often used to provide temporary facilities, including toilets and ablutions at events. The portability of the buildings makes them popular with hire companies and clients alike. The use of modular buildings enables events to be held at locations where existing facilities are unavailable, or unable to support the number of event attendees.

Construction process

[edit]

Construction is offsite, using lean manufacturing techniques to prefabricate single or multi-story buildings in deliverable module sections. Often, modules are based around standard 20 foot containers, using the same dimensions, structures, building and stacking/placing techniques, but with smooth (instead of corrugated) walls, glossy white paint, and provisions for windows, power, potable water, sewage lines, telecommunications and air conditioning. Permanent Modular Construction (PMC) buildings are manufactured in a controlled setting and can be constructed of wood, steel, or concrete. Modular components are typically constructed indoors on assembly lines. Modules' construction may take as little as ten days but more often one to three months. PMC modules can be integrated into site built projects or stand alone and can be delivered with MEP, fixtures and interior finishes.

The buildings are 60% to 90% completed offsite in a factory-controlled environment, and transported and assembled at the final building site. This can comprise the entire building or be components or subassemblies of larger structures. In many cases, modular contractors work with traditional general contractors to exploit the resources and advantages of each type of construction. Completed modules are transported to the building site and assembled by a crane.[4] Placement of the modules may take from several hours to several days. Off-site construction running in parallel to site preparation providing a shorter time to project completion is one of the common selling points of modular construction. Modular construction timeline

Permanent modular buildings are built to meet or exceed the same building codes and standards as site-built structures and the same architect-specified materials used in conventionally constructed buildings are used in modular construction projects. PMC can have as many stories as building codes allow. Unlike relocatable buildings, PMC structures are intended to remain in one location for the duration of their useful life.

Manufacturing considerations

[edit]

The entire process of modular construction places significance on the design stage. This is where practices such as Design for Manufacture and Assembly (DfMA) are used to ensure that assembly tolerances are controlled throughout manufacture and assembly on site. It is vital that there is enough allowance in the design to allow the assembly to take up any "slack" or misalignment of components. The use of advanced CAD systems, 3D printing and manufacturing control systems are important for modular construction to be successful. This is quite unlike on-site construction where the tradesman can often make the part to suit any particular installation.

Upfront production investment

[edit]

The development of factory facilities for modular homes requires significant upfront investment. To help address housing shortages in the 2010s, the United Kingdom Government (via Homes England) invested in modular housing initiatives. Several UK companies (for example, Ilke Homes, L&G Modular Homes, House by Urban Splash, Modulous, TopHat and Lighthouse) were established to develop modular homes as an alternative to traditionally-built residences, but failed as they could not book revenues quickly enough to cover the costs of establishing manufacturing facilities.

IIke Homes opened a factory in Knaresborough, Yorkshire in 2018, and Homes England invested £30m in November 2019,[5] and a further £30m in September 2021.[6] Despite a further fund-raising round, raising £100m in December 2022,[7][8] Ilke Homes went into administration on 30 June 2023,[9][10] with most of the company's 1,150 staff made redundant,[11] and debts of £320m,[12] including £68m owed to Homes England.[13]

In 2015 Legal & General launched a modular homes operation, L&G Modular Homes, opening a 550,000 sq ft factory in Sherburn-in-Elmet, near Selby in Yorkshire.[14] The company incurred large losses as it invested in its factory before earning any revenues; by 2019, it had lost over £100m.[15] Sales revenues from a Selby project, plus schemes in Kent and West Sussex, started to flow in 2022, by which time the business's total losses had grown to £174m.[16] Production was halted in May 2023, with L&G blaming local planning delays and the COVID-19 pandemic for its failure to grow its sales pipeline.[17][18] The enterprise incurred total losses over seven years of £295m.[19]

Market acceptance

[edit]
Raines Court is a multi-story modular housing block in Stoke Newington, London, one of the first two residential buildings in Britain of this type. (December 2005)

Some home buyers and some lending institutions resist consideration of modular homes as equivalent in value to site-built homes.[citation needed] While the homes themselves may be of equivalent quality, entrenched zoning regulations and psychological marketplace factors may create hurdles for buyers or builders of modular homes and should be considered as part of the decision-making process when exploring this type of home as a living and/or investment option. In the UK and Australia, modular homes have become accepted in some regional areas; however, they are not commonly built in major cities. Modular homes are becoming increasingly common in Japanese urban areas, due to improvements in design and quality, speed and compactness of onsite assembly, as well as due to lowering costs and ease of repair after earthquakes. Recent innovations allow modular buildings to be indistinguishable from site-built structures.[20] Surveys have shown that individuals can rarely tell the difference between a modular home and a site-built home.[21]

Modular homes vs. mobile homes

[edit]

Differences include the building codes that govern the construction, types of material used and how they are appraised by banks for lending purposes. Modular homes are built to either local or state building codes as opposed to manufactured homes, which are also built in a factory but are governed by a federal building code.[22] The codes that govern the construction of modular homes are exactly the same codes that govern the construction of site-constructed homes.[citation needed] In the United States, all modular homes are constructed according to the International Building Code (IBC), IRC, BOCA or the code that has been adopted by the local jurisdiction.[citation needed] In some states, such as California, mobile homes must still be registered yearly, like vehicles or standard trailers, with the Department of Motor Vehicles or other state agency. This is true even if the owners remove the axles and place it on a permanent foundation.[23]

Recognizing a mobile or manufactured home

[edit]

A mobile home should have a small metal tag on the outside of each section. If a tag cannot be located, details about the home can be found in the electrical panel box. This tag should also reveal a manufacturing date.[citation needed] Modular homes do not have metal tags on the outside but will have a dataplate installed inside the home, usually under the kitchen sink or in a closet. The dataplate will provide information such as the manufacturer, third party inspection agency, appliance information, and manufacture date.

Materials

[edit]

The materials used in modular buildings are of the same quality and durability as those used in traditional construction, preserving characteristics such as acoustic insulation and energy efficiency, as well as allowing for attractive and innovative designs thanks to their versatility.[24] Most commonly used are steel, wood and concrete.[25]

  • Steel: Because it is easily moldable, it allows for innovation in design and aesthetics.
  • Wood: Wood is an essential part of most modular buildings. Thanks to its lightness, it facilitates the work of assembling and moving the prefabricated modules.
  • Concrete: Concrete offers a solid structure that is ideal for the structural reinforcement of permanent modular buildings. It is increasingly being used as a base material in this type of building, thanks to its various characteristics such as fire resistance, energy savings, greater acoustic insulation, and durability.[26]

Wood-frame floors, walls and roof are often utilized. Some modular homes include brick or stone exteriors, granite counters and steeply pitched roofs. Modulars can be designed to sit on a perimeter foundation or basement. In contrast, mobile homes are constructed with a steel chassis that is integral to the integrity of the floor system. Modular buildings can be custom built to a client's specifications. Current designs include multi-story units, multi-family units and entire apartment complexes. The negative stereotype commonly associated with mobile homes has prompted some manufacturers to start using the term "off-site construction."

New modular offerings include other construction methods such as cross-laminated timber frames.[27]

Financing

[edit]

Mobile homes often require special lenders.[28]

Modular homes on the other hand are financed as site built homes with a construction loan

Standards and zoning considerations

[edit]

Typically, modular dwellings are built to local, state or council code, resulting in dwellings from a given manufacturing facility having differing construction standards depending on the final destination of the modules.[29] The most important zones that manufacturers have to take into consideration are local wind, heat, and snow load zones.[citation needed] For example, homes built for final assembly in a hurricane-prone, earthquake or flooding area may include additional bracing to meet local building codes. Steel and/or wood framing are common options for building a modular home.

Some US courts have ruled that zoning restrictions applicable to mobile homes do not apply to modular homes since modular homes are designed to have a permanent foundation.[citation needed] Additionally, in the US, valuation differences between modular homes and site-built homes are often negligible in real estate appraisal practice; modular homes can, in some market areas, (depending on local appraisal practices per Uniform Standards of Professional Appraisal Practice) be evaluated the same way as site-built dwellings of similar quality. In Australia, manufactured home parks are governed by additional legislation that does not apply to permanent modular homes. Possible developments in equivalence between modular and site-built housing types for the purposes of real estate appraisals, financing and zoning may increase the sales of modular homes over time.[30]

CLASP (Consortium of Local Authorities Special Programme)

[edit]

The Consortium of Local Authorities Special Programme (abbreviated and more commonly referred to as CLASP) was formed in England in 1957 to combine the resources of local authorities with the purpose of developing a prefabricated school building programme. Initially developed by Charles Herbert Aslin, the county architect for Hertfordshire, the system was used as a model for several other counties, most notably Nottinghamshire and Derbyshire. CLASP's popularity in these coal mining areas was in part because the system permitted fairly straightforward replacement of subsidence-damaged sections of building.

Building strength

[edit]
Modular Home being built in Vermont photo by Josh Vignona
Modular home in Vermont

Modular homes are designed to be stronger than traditional homes by, for example, replacing nails with screws, adding glue to joints, and using 8–10% more lumber than conventional housing.[31] This is to help the modules maintain their structural integrity as they are transported on trucks to the construction site. However, there are few studies on the response of modular buildings to transport and handling stresses. It is therefore presently difficult to predict transport induced damage.[1]

When FEMA studied the destruction wrought by Hurricane Andrew in Dade County Florida, they concluded that modular and masonry homes fared best compared to other construction.[32]

CE marking

[edit]

The CE mark is a construction norm that guarantees the user of mechanical resistance and strength of the structure. It is a label given by European community empowered authorities for end-to-end process mastering and traceability.[citation needed]

All manufacturing operations are being monitored and recorded:

  • Suppliers have to be known and certified,
  • Raw materials and goods being sourced are to be recorded by batch used,
  • Elementary products are recorded and their quality is monitored,
  • Assembly quality is managed and assessed on a step by step basis,
  • When a modular unit is finished, a whole set of tests are performed and if quality standards are met, a unique number and EC stamp is attached to and on the unit.

This ID and all the details are recorded in a database, At any time, the producer has to be able to answer and provide all the information from each step of the production of a single unit, The EC certification guaranties standards in terms of durability, resistance against wind and earthquakes.[citation needed]

Open modular building

[edit]

The term Modularity can be perceived in different ways. It can even be extended to building P2P (peer-to-peer) applications; where a tailored use of the P2P technology is with the aid of a modular paradigm. Here, well-understood components with clean interfaces can be combined to implement arbitrarily complex functions in the hopes of further proliferating self-organising P2P technology. Open modular buildings are an excellent example of this. Modular building can also be open source and green. Bauwens, Kostakis and Pazaitis[33] elaborate on this kind of modularity. They link modularity to the construction of houses.

This commons-based activity is geared towards modularity. The construction of modular buildings enables a community to share designs and tools related to all the different parts of house construction. A socially-oriented endeavour that deals with the external architecture of buildings and the internal dynamics of open source commons. People are thus provided with the tools to reconfigure the public sphere in the area where they live, especially in urban environments. There is a robust socializing element that is reminiscent of pre-industrial vernacular architecture and community-based building.[34]

Some organisations already provide modular housing. Such organisations are relevant as they allow for the online sharing of construction plans and tools. These plans can be then assembled, through either digital fabrication like 3D printing or even sourcing low-cost materials from local communities. It has been noticed that given how easy it is to use these low-cost materials are (for example: plywood), it can help increase the permeation of these open buildings to areas or communities that lack the know-how or abilities of conventional architectural or construction firms. Ergo, it allows for a fundamentally more standardised way of constructing houses and buildings. The overarching idea behind it remains key - to allow for easy access to user-friendly layouts which anyone can use to build in a more sustainable and affordable way.

Modularity in this sense is building a house from different standardised parts, like solving a jigsaw puzzle.

3D printing can be used to build the house.

The main standard is OpenStructures and its derivative Autarkytecture.[35]

Research and development

[edit]

Modular construction is the subject of continued research and development worldwide as the technology is applied to taller and taller buildings. Research and development is carried out by modular building companies and also research institutes such as the Modular Building Institute[36] and the Steel Construction Institute.[37]

See also

[edit]
  • Affordable housing
  • Alternative housing
  • Commercial modular construction
  • Construction 3D printing
  • Container home
  • Kit house
  • MAN steel house
  • Manufactured housing
  • Modern methods of construction
  • Modular design
  • Portable building
  • Prefabrication
  • Open-source architecture
  • Open source hardware
  • OpenStructures
  • Prefabricated home
  • Relocatable buildings
  • Recreational vehicles
  • Shipping container architecture
  • Stick-built home
  • Tiny house movement
  • Toter

References

[edit]
  1. ^ a b Lacey, Andrew William; Chen, Wensu; Hao, Hong; Bi, Kaiming (2018). "Structural Response of Modular Buildings – An Overview". Journal of Building Engineering. 16: 45–56. doi:10.1016/j.jobe.2017.12.008. hdl:20.500.11937/60087.
  2. ^ Lacey, Andrew William; Chen, Wensu; Hao, Hong; Bi, Kaiming (2019). "Review of bolted inter-module connections in modular steel buildings". Journal of Building Engineering. 23: 207–219. doi:10.1016/j.jobe.2019.01.035. S2CID 86540434.
  3. ^ "Halley VI Research Station – British Antarctic Survey". Bas.ac.uk. Retrieved 2016-05-03.
  4. ^ "Why Build Modular?". Modular.org. Retrieved 2016-05-03.
  5. ^ Morby, Aaron (4 November 2019). "Government pumps £30m into modular house builder". Construction Enquirer. Retrieved 14 March 2024.
  6. ^ Morby, Aaron (27 September 2021). "Ilke Homes raises £60m for top 10 house builder plan". Construction Enquirer. Retrieved 14 March 2024.
  7. ^ Morby, Aaron (6 December 2022). "Ilke Homes pulls off £100m record-breaking fund raise". Construction Enquirer. Retrieved 14 March 2024.
  8. ^ O'Connor, Rob (6 December 2022). "ilke Homes announces new £100m investment". Infrastructure Intelligence. Retrieved 14 March 2024.
  9. ^ Gardiner, Joey (30 June 2023). "Ilke Homes sinks into administration with most of firm's 1,100 staff set to lose their jobs". Building. Retrieved 14 March 2024.
  10. ^ Riding, James (30 June 2023). "Modular house builder Ilke Homes enters administration with majority of staff to be made redundant". Inside Housing. Retrieved 14 March 2024.
  11. ^ Morby, Aaron (30 June 2023). "Ilke Homes falls into administration". Construction Enquirer. Retrieved 14 March 2024.
  12. ^ Prior, Grant (25 August 2023). "Ilke Homes went under owing £320m". Construction Enquirer. Retrieved 14 March 2024.
  13. ^ Willmore, James (14 February 2024). "Homes England to lose most of £68.8m it is owed from Ilke Homes following collapse". Inside Housing. Retrieved 14 March 2024.
  14. ^ Dale, Sharon (11 May 2020). "Head of Legal & General modular homes factory reveals plans for its future". Yorkshire Post. Retrieved 20 March 2024.
  15. ^ Morby, Aaron (30 November 2020). "L&G modular homes losses exceed £100m". Construction Enquirer. Retrieved 20 March 2024.
  16. ^ Morby, Aaron (3 October 2022). "L&G modular homes amassed loss deepens to £174m". Construction Enquirer. Retrieved 20 March 2024.
  17. ^ Prior, Grant (4 May 2023). "L&G halts production at modular homes factory". Construction Enquirer. Retrieved 20 March 2024.
  18. ^ Kollewe, Julia (4 May 2023). "Legal & General halts new production at modular homes factory near Leeds". The Guardian.
  19. ^ Morby, Aaron (6 November 2023). "L&G modular homes foray amassed £295m of losses". Construction Enquirer. Retrieved 20 March 2024.
  20. ^ fab, ukporta (19 August 2020). "prefabricated structures". ukportaprefab. Retrieved 4 September 2020.
  21. ^ "Factory-Built Construction and the American Homebuyer: Perceptions and Opportunities" (PDF). Huduser.gov. p. 9. Retrieved 2017-09-10.
  22. ^ Solutions, Dryside Property – Jennifer Mitchell and Magic Web. "Mobile homes vs Manufactured homes vs Modular homes". Drysideproperty.com. Retrieved 2018-03-09.
  23. ^ "HCD Manufactured and Mobile Homes". Hcd.ca.gov.
  24. ^ Métodos modernos de construcción (MMC): Fabricación modular. Upv.es. 2020-10-02 Retrieved 2022-09-08
  25. ^ A guide to the latest modular building construction materials. Hydrodiseno.com. 2021-12-14 Retrieved 2022-09-05
  26. ^ Construcción modular en hormigón: una tendencia al alza (PDF). Andece.org. p. 53. Retrieved 2022-07-06
  27. ^ "Prefabricated Housing Module Advances Wood Research at the University of British Columbia | 2017-05-15T00:00:00 | Perkins + Will News". Archived from the original on 2019-03-31. Retrieved 2019-03-31.
  28. ^ "HUD Financing Manufactured (Mobile) Homes". Portal.hud.gov. Archived from the original on 2016-05-03. Retrieved 2016-05-03.
  29. ^ "Australian Government modular home regulations". Austlii.edu.au. Retrieved 2007-10-21.
  30. ^ "Building Codes for Modular Homes". Modularhomesnetwork.com. Retrieved 2010-08-06.
  31. ^ "Disruptive Development: Modular Manufacturing In Multifamily Housing" (PDF). p. 35. Retrieved 10 September 2017.
  32. ^ "FIA 22, Mitigation Assessment Team Report: Hurricane Andrew in Florida (1993)". Fema.gov.
  33. ^ Bouwens, M., Kostakis, V., & Pazaitis, A. 2019. The Commons Manifesto. University of Westminster Press, London, pg. 24
  34. ^ Bouwens, M., Kostakis, V., & Pazaitis, A. 2019. The Commons Manifesto. University of Westminster Press, London, pg. 25
  35. ^ "Thomas Lommée & Christiane Hoegner - Autarkytecture | z33". Archived from the original on 2014-12-31. Retrieved 2015-01-01.
  36. ^ "Modular Building Institute". Modular.org.
  37. ^ "The Steel Construction Institute (SCI) UK Global Steel Expertise". Steel-sci.com.

34 - "Volumetric modular construction trend gaining groun d". https://www.aa.com.tr/en/corporate-news/volumetric-modular-construction-trend-gaining-ground/2357158 06.09.2021

 

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Driving Directions in Tulsa County


Driving Directions From East Central High School to Durham Supply Inc
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Reviews for Durham Supply Inc


Durham Supply Inc

Dennis Champion

(5)

Durham supply and Royal supply seems to find the most helpful and friendly people to work in their stores, we are based out of Kansas City out here for a few remodels and these guys treated us like we've gone there for years.

Durham Supply Inc

Gerald Clifford Brewster

(5)

We will see, the storm door I bought says on the tag it's 36x80, but it's 34x80. If they return it.......they had no problems returning it. And it was no fault of there's, you measure a mobile home door different than a standard door!

Durham Supply Inc

Ty Spears

(5)

Bought a door/storm door combo. Turns out it was the wrong size. They swapped it out, quick and easy no problems. Very helpful in explaining the size differences from standard door sizes.

Durham Supply Inc

B Mann

(5)

I was in need of some items for a double wide that I am remodeling and this place is the only place in town that had what I needed ( I didn't even try the other rude place )while I was there I learned the other place that was in Tulsa that also sold mobile home supplies went out of business (no wonder the last time I was in there they were VERY RUDE and high priced) I like the way Dunham does business they answered all my questions and got me the supplies I needed, very friendly, I will be back to purchase the rest of my items when the time comes.

Durham Supply Inc

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This place is really neat, if they don't have it they can order it from another of their stores and have it there overnight in most cases. Even hard to find items for a trailer! I definitely recommend this place to everyone! O and the prices is awesome too!

View GBP

Frequently Asked Questions

When evaluating Carrier options for a mobile home, consider energy efficiency (look for units with high SEER ratings), size compatibility (ensure the unit fits your space and cooling needs), and additional features like programmable thermostats or smart connectivity. Its also important to check if the unit is designed specifically for mobile homes.
The cost of installing a Carrier AC unit can be slightly higher than some other brands due to its reputation for quality and reliability. However, it offers long-term savings through energy-efficient models that lower utility bills. Installation costs will vary based on factors such as local labor rates, existing ductwork, and specific model chosen.
Yes, several Carrier models are well-suited for mobile homes. The Comfort Series includes budget-friendly options with reliable performance and efficiency. For enhanced comfort features and superior efficiency, consider models from the Performance or Infinity Series. Always consult with an HVAC professional to ensure you choose a model that meets your homes specific requirements.