Evaluating Different Financing Packages for Mobile Home HVAC

Evaluating Different Financing Packages for Mobile Home HVAC

Overview of HVAC needs specific to mobile homes

When considering the unique needs of mobile homes, it's crucial to understand that their heating, ventilation, and air conditioning (HVAC) requirements differ significantly from those of traditional houses. Mobile homes often have smaller spaces and different structural designs that necessitate tailored HVAC solutions. As we explore various financing packages for mobile home HVAC systems, understanding these specific needs can help in making informed decisions.


Proper insulation is essential for efficient heating and cooling in mobile homes mobile home hvac systems air filter.

Mobile homes typically require compact and efficient HVAC units that are capable of providing adequate climate control without overwhelming the limited space available. These units must be energy-efficient to keep utility costs manageable for homeowners who may already be operating on tight budgets. The construction of a mobile home also poses unique challenges; for instance, the lightweight nature and potential for movement mean that HVAC systems need to be both secure and flexible.


Considering these factors, evaluating financing packages becomes an integral part of the decision-making process. Homeowners should look at various options such as traditional loans, manufacturer financing deals, or government programs designed specifically for mobile home improvements. Each option has its pros and cons depending on interest rates, repayment terms, and eligibility criteria.


Traditional loans might offer lower interest rates but could require higher credit scores or collateral. Manufacturer financing deals can provide more straightforward application processes but may come with higher interest rates or restrictive terms. Government programs could offer favorable conditions like low-interest rates or grants; however, they often have strict qualification requirements.


Another critical aspect when evaluating financing packages is understanding the long-term cost implications versus immediate affordability. While a particular package might seem attractive due to low upfront costs, it's vital to consider how interest rates and repayment terms will impact finances over time.


Additionally, investing in energy-efficient systems can lead to savings on utility bills in the long run-a factor worth considering when calculating overall costs. Some financing packages even offer incentives or rebates for choosing eco-friendly options which can further offset initial expenses.


Ultimately, selecting the right financing package requires a careful balance between budget constraints, system efficiency, and long-term financial health. By thoroughly assessing one's individual needs alongside available options-considering both immediate affordability and future savings-homeowners can make informed choices that enhance their living environment while remaining financially sustainable.


In conclusion, addressing HVAC needs specific to mobile homes involves navigating through unique requirements dictated by space constraints and structural considerations while simultaneously evaluating diverse financing arrangements. With thoughtful analysis and strategic planning tailored around personal circumstances-balancing between initial investment capabilities against potential ongoing savings-mobile home owners can effectively manage their heating-cooling challenges without compromising on comfort or fiscal well-being.

In today's rapidly evolving world, the importance of efficient heating and cooling solutions cannot be overstated, particularly when it comes to mobile homes. These residences often face unique challenges in maintaining comfortable indoor temperatures due to their construction and mobility. As such, selecting an effective HVAC system is crucial for both comfort and energy efficiency. However, financing these systems can pose a significant challenge for many mobile home owners. Therefore, evaluating different financing packages becomes essential in making these vital upgrades attainable.


Efficient heating and cooling solutions offer numerous benefits that extend beyond mere comfort. They play a pivotal role in reducing energy consumption, thus lowering utility bills-a key consideration for anyone living on a tight budget. Additionally, they contribute to environmental sustainability by minimizing carbon footprints. For mobile home owners who might already be contending with limited space and resources, these benefits are invaluable.


When it comes to financing HVAC systems for mobile homes, there are several options available that can help ease the financial burden. Traditional loans from banks or credit unions are one option; they typically offer predictable repayment terms but may require good credit scores and collateral. Some homeowners might find personal loans appealing due to their flexibility in use and straightforward application processes.


Another avenue is government-backed programs or incentives designed to promote energy efficiency improvements. These initiatives often provide grants or low-interest loans specifically targeted at upgrading heating and cooling systems in residential settings, including mobile homes. Such programs not only make financing more accessible but also encourage sustainable living practices.


Leasing options present another viable solution for those hesitant about committing to ownership or lacking upfront capital. Under this arrangement, homeowners can essentially rent their HVAC equipment by paying monthly fees-often inclusive of maintenance costs-making budgeting easier while enjoying the benefits of modern technology without substantial initial expenses.


Lastly, some manufacturers offer financing directly through promotional deals or partnerships with financial institutions. These arrangements might include zero-percent interest rates for a specified period or deferred payment plans aimed at easing immediate cash flow concerns.


In evaluating these diverse financing packages, it's important for homeowners to consider factors such as interest rates, repayment terms, total cost over time versus upfront expense savings, eligibility requirements-and perhaps most importantly-how well each option aligns with their long-term financial goals and lifestyle needs.


Ultimately, finding the right balance between affordability and efficient heating/cooling solutions is key for mobile home residents striving toward economic stability while enjoying enhanced comfort levels year-round amidst changing weather conditions.


By carefully assessing various financial products available on today's market alongside understanding individual household needs concerning thermal management technologies themselves -mobile home owners stand poised not only improve quality life within own walls but also contribute broader efforts towards achieving greater environmental responsibility collectively shared all communities alike worldwide future forward thinking today tomorrow alike indeed!

More About Us

What Yelp Says About Us

How to reach us


Aligning Equipment Compatibility with Financing Options in Mobile Homes

Aligning Equipment Compatibility with Financing Options in Mobile Homes

In the dynamic world of mobile homes, aligning equipment compatibility with financing options is a crucial element that can significantly impact the success of any project.. The process involves ensuring that the equipment used in mobile home construction or renovation is not only technically suitable but also financially feasible.

Posted by on 2024-12-30

Understanding Brand-Specific Compatibility for Mobile Home HVAC Installations

Understanding Brand-Specific Compatibility for Mobile Home HVAC Installations

When it comes to mobile home HVAC installations, understanding brand-specific compatibility is crucial for ensuring both proper installation and long-term maintenance.. Mobile homes have unique architectural and structural characteristics that require tailored heating and cooling solutions.

Posted by on 2024-12-30

How to Choose the Right Payment Plan for Your Mobile Home Furnace

How to Choose the Right Payment Plan for Your Mobile Home Furnace

Making an informed decision when choosing the right payment plan for your mobile home furnace is essential to ensure both financial stability and comfort in your living space.. The process can be daunting, given the myriad of options available, but with a methodical approach, you can select a plan that aligns with your financial situation and lifestyle needs. First and foremost, it's crucial to assess your current financial status.

Posted by on 2024-12-30

Flexible Financing Options for Mobile Home HVAC Repairs

Flexible Financing Options for Mobile Home HVAC Repairs

Managing costs effectively when it comes to mobile home HVAC repairs can be a daunting task, especially given the array of financial pressures many homeowners face.. However, flexible financing options can significantly ease this burden and provide peace of mind.

Posted by on 2024-12-30

Understanding Financing Options for Mobile Home HVAC

When it comes to upgrading or installing a new HVAC system in a mobile home, understanding the array of financing options available is crucial for making an informed decision. The process can be daunting, with various packages offering different terms, interest rates, and benefits. Evaluating these options requires a careful examination of your financial situation, the costs involved, and the long-term implications of each choice.


Firstly, traditional bank loans are a common financing route. They typically offer competitive interest rates and flexible repayment plans. However, eligibility often depends on credit scores and income verification. For those with strong credit histories, this option may provide the lowest overall cost due to lower interest rates.


Alternatively, personal loans from online lenders have become increasingly popular due to their convenience and quick approval processes. While they might have higher interest rates compared to traditional banks, they offer flexibility in terms of loan amounts and repayment schedules. This option might be appealing if you need funds quickly or if your credit score doesn't meet traditional bank standards.


For homeowners who prefer not to take out a loan, manufacturer financing might be an attractive option. Many HVAC manufacturers partner with finance companies to offer special programs that include low or no-interest promotional periods. These offers are enticing but require careful management; failing to pay off the balance before the promotional period ends could lead to high retroactive interest charges.


Another avenue is energy efficiency loans or grants provided by government programs aimed at promoting sustainable living practices. These typically come with favorable terms for homeowners upgrading to more energy-efficient systems. It's essential to research local and federal programs that provide incentives or rebates for energy-efficient installations as these can significantly reduce overall costs.


Lastly, home equity lines of credit (HELOCs) present another possible financing path for those who own their mobile homes outright or have significant equity built up. These tend to offer lower interest rates because they are secured against your property but involve risks such as losing your home if you're unable to keep up with payments.


In conclusion, evaluating different financing packages for mobile home HVAC systems involves weighing the pros and cons of each option carefully against your financial situation and goals. It's important not only to consider immediate affordability but also long-term financial health when making this decision. Consulting with financial advisors or using online calculators can also aid in understanding how different scenarios will impact your finances over time. By thoroughly examining all available options, you can make a choice that best aligns with both your budgetary needs and comfort preferences for years to come.

Understanding Financing Options for Mobile Home HVAC

Explanation of common financing packages available

When considering the installation or upgrade of a heating, ventilation, and air conditioning (HVAC) system in a mobile home, one of the primary considerations for homeowners is how to finance this significant investment. There are a variety of financing packages available that cater to different financial situations and preferences. Understanding these options can help homeowners make informed decisions that best suit their needs.


One common financing option is personal loans. These are unsecured loans provided by banks, credit unions, or online lenders, allowing homeowners to borrow a fixed amount with a set repayment period and interest rate. Personal loans can be an attractive option because they often do not require collateral, meaning the homeowner's property isn't at risk if they default on the loan. However, since these loans are unsecured, they may come with higher interest rates compared to secured options.


Another popular choice is home improvement loans specifically designed for renovations or upgrades such as HVAC systems. These loans can be either secured or unsecured and typically offer lower interest rates than general personal loans due to their specific purpose. Homeowners who opt for secured home improvement loans use their property as collateral, which might provide access to more substantial sums or better terms.


For those who prefer flexibility in borrowing amounts and repayment schedules, credit cards may serve as an alternative financing method. While using credit cards can be convenient-allowing for quick transactions without lengthy approval processes-they usually carry high-interest rates if balances aren't paid off promptly. As such, using credit cards might be more suitable for smaller-scale projects or when other financing means are unavailable.


In recent years, many HVAC companies have begun offering in-house financing plans directly through partnerships with financial institutions. These plans often come with promotional offers such as zero-percent interest for an introductory period or deferred payment options that allow homeowners time before starting payments. Such arrangements can ease immediate financial burdens but require careful attention to terms and conditions to avoid high costs once promotions end.


Additionally, government-backed programs like FHA Title I Property Improvement Loans provide another avenue for securing funds. These programs aim to assist homeowners in making improvements that enhance living conditions without imposing undue financial strain. They typically feature competitive interest rates and longer repayment terms compared to conventional bank loans.


Finally, energy efficiency incentives from utility companies or state governments sometimes offer rebates or low-interest loan programs aimed at promoting environmentally friendly upgrades like modern HVAC systems. By reducing initial costs through rebates or providing favorable loan conditions geared towards sustainability efforts, these programs encourage investments that benefit both homeowners and the environment.


In conclusion, exploring different financing packages requires evaluating several factors including interest rates, loan terms, eligibility requirements, and potential risks associated with each option. By understanding what's available-from personal loans and specialized home improvement funds to credit card use and manufacturer-specific deals-homeowners can tailor their approach based on individual circumstances ensuring they secure the best possible arrangement tailored specifically towards upgrading their mobile home's HVAC system efficiently and economically.

Key factors to consider when choosing a financing option

When evaluating different financing packages for a mobile home HVAC system, it's essential to consider several key factors to ensure you make a well-informed decision. The right financing choice not only affects your immediate financial situation but also impacts your long-term financial health and the overall comfort of your home.


Firstly, interest rates are a critical consideration. They directly affect the total cost of financing an HVAC system. Lower interest rates typically mean lower monthly payments and less money paid over the life of the loan. It's important to compare rates from multiple lenders or financing programs to find the most favorable terms. Fixed interest rates provide predictability in budgeting, while variable rates might offer initial savings but carry the risk of future increases.


Another crucial factor is the length of the loan term. Shorter loan terms generally mean higher monthly payments but result in less interest paid over time. On the other hand, longer terms reduce monthly payments but increase total interest costs. It's important to balance what you can afford each month with how much you're willing to pay in total.


Credit score requirements should also be taken into account. Many financing options are contingent upon creditworthiness; hence, understanding where your credit stands can guide you toward appropriate choices and prepare you for potential negotiations on terms and conditions.


Additionally, consider any fees associated with the loan, such as origination fees, prepayment penalties, or late payment charges. These can add up and significantly impact your overall cost if not accounted for upfront.


The flexibility of payment options is another consideration that may align better with fluctuating income levels some homeowners experience. Some lenders may offer deferred payment plans or seasonal payment adjustments, which can be advantageous depending on personal financial situations.


Lastly, it's wise to evaluate any special offers or promotions that might be available through manufacturers or dealers directly tied to specific brands or models of HVAC systems. These promotions can sometimes include reduced rates or rebates that effectively lower your overall expenditure.


In conclusion, when choosing a financing option for a mobile home HVAC system, carefully weigh these factors-interest rates, loan term lengths, credit requirements, additional fees and charges, payment flexibility, and promotional offers-to make an informed decision that aligns with both immediate needs and long-term financial goals. By doing so, you ensure a comfortable living environment without compromising fiscal stability.

Personal Loans for HVAC Systems

When considering upgrading or installing a new HVAC system in a mobile home, one of the primary concerns is often the cost. HVAC systems can be an essential investment for improving comfort and energy efficiency, but they come with a significant price tag. This is where personal loans for HVAC systems become an attractive option, offering homeowners a way to spread out payments over time rather than bearing the upfront expense all at once.


Evaluating different financing packages requires careful consideration to ensure that you select an option that aligns with your financial situation and long-term goals. Personal loans specifically tailored for home improvements, such as HVAC installations, often provide favorable terms compared to general personal loans. These specialized loans may offer lower interest rates, longer repayment periods, or flexible payment options designed to accommodate the typically high costs associated with HVAC systems.


Start by assessing your current financial standing and credit score. A strong credit score can open doors to more competitive loan offers with lower interest rates and better terms. Next, research lenders who specialize in home improvement loans or those who have experience working with mobile homeowners. Some lenders may offer incentives or partnerships with HVAC manufacturers or contractors that could lead to discounts on equipment or installation services.


It's also important to compare the terms of each potential loan package thoroughly. Look beyond just the interest rate; consider the total cost of borrowing over the life of the loan. Calculate any fees associated with origination, closing, or early repayment penalties that might inflate the overall expense of financing your HVAC system through a particular lender.


Another critical factor is understanding how each financing package fits within your monthly budget constraints. Will you be able to comfortably manage the monthly payments without sacrificing other financial priorities? Opting for a longer repayment term might reduce immediate monthly payments but could result in paying more interest over time.


In addition to traditional banks and credit unions, explore alternative lending platforms online that might offer competitive rates due to lower overhead costs. However, exercise caution and verify their legitimacy before committing.


Finally, weigh the benefits of using personal loans against other financing methods such as manufacturer financing programs or utility company rebates which might offer unique advantages like zero-interest periods or cash-back incentives upon energy-efficient upgrades.


By conducting thorough research and comparing multiple financing options tailored for mobile home HVAC systems, you can make an informed decision that enhances both your living environment and financial well-being without undue strain on your finances.

Pros and cons of using personal loans for HVAC installation

When considering the installation of a new HVAC system in a mobile home, one of the critical decisions involves choosing the right financing option. Personal loans often emerge as a viable choice for many homeowners due to their accessibility and straightforward terms. However, like any financial product, they come with their own set of advantages and disadvantages that must be weighed carefully.


On the positive side, personal loans offer flexibility and speed, which can be crucial when you're facing an urgent need for climate control improvements. Unlike some other forms of financing, personal loans generally do not require collateral, meaning you don't have to risk your home or other valuable assets to secure the loan. This feature provides peace of mind for many borrowers who are cautious about tying their property to debt.


Moreover, personal loans typically come with fixed interest rates and repayment terms, allowing homeowners to budget more effectively over time. Knowing exactly what your monthly payments will be helps eliminate surprises that can arise with variable-rate options. Additionally, because these loans are unsecured, they often involve less paperwork and quicker approval processes compared to home equity lines or other secured methods.


However, there are downsides to using personal loans for HVAC installations in mobile homes that should not be overlooked. One significant concern is the interest rate itself; unsecured personal loans often have higher interest rates than secured alternatives like home equity loans or lines of credit. This means that over time, you may end up paying significantly more in interest charges.


Furthermore, while the absence of collateral requirements is appealing from a safety perspective, it also means lenders are taking on more risk by offering these loans without security backing. Consequently, borrowers with lower credit scores might find it challenging to obtain favorable terms or even qualify at all.


Another consideration is the impact on your overall financial health. Taking out a personal loan increases your debt load and can affect your credit score if not managed properly. It's important for homeowners to assess their ability to meet monthly payments consistently before committing to this type of financing.


In conclusion, while personal loans provide a convenient and accessible way to finance an HVAC installation in a mobile home, they also come with potential drawbacks such as higher interest rates and implications for credit standing. Homeowners must conduct thorough research and compare different financing options tailored specifically for mobile homes before making a decision. By carefully evaluating both the pros and cons associated with personal loans, individuals can ensure they choose a solution that aligns best with their financial situation and long-term goals.

When considering the financing of a mobile home HVAC system, understanding the intricacies of personal loans is crucial. Interest rates and loan terms are pivotal factors that can significantly impact the overall cost and feasibility of your investment. As we dive into evaluating different financing packages, it becomes essential to demystify these concepts and assess how they align with your financial situation.


Interest rates on personal loans vary widely, influenced by factors such as credit score, lender policies, and prevailing economic conditions. Typically, borrowers with higher credit scores benefit from lower interest rates, reflecting their perceived reliability in repaying loans. Conversely, those with lower credit scores might face higher rates due to increased risk for lenders. It's important to note that even a small difference in interest rates can have a substantial effect on the total repayment amount over the life of a loan.


The terms associated with personal loans also play an integral role in shaping your financial commitment. Loan terms refer to the duration over which you agree to repay the borrowed amount. Shorter terms generally lead to higher monthly payments but less interest paid overall, while longer terms might offer more manageable monthly installments at the expense of paying more interest over time. Understanding this trade-off is key when evaluating which option best suits your budgetary constraints.


When assessing different financing packages for a mobile home HVAC system, it's beneficial to explore various lenders and compare their offerings. Banks, credit unions, and online lenders each have unique criteria and benefits that may align differently with your needs. Some may offer fixed interest rates providing predictability in repayments, while others might provide variable rates that could fluctuate based on market conditions.


Additionally, examining any fees associated with personal loans is vital-such as origination fees or prepayment penalties-which can influence the true cost of borrowing beyond just interest rates and repayment terms. Transparency from lenders regarding these fees ensures you make an informed decision without unexpected surprises down the line.


In conclusion, navigating through different financing packages for mobile home HVAC systems requires careful consideration of both interest rates and loan terms associated with personal loans. By analyzing these elements alongside fees and lender reliability, you position yourself to make a financially sound decision tailored to your specific circumstances. Investing effort into understanding these components not only aids in securing favorable loan conditions but also contributes significantly towards achieving long-term financial stability as you enhance your living environment's comfort and efficiency.

When considering the purchase of an HVAC system for a mobile home, one critical aspect that potential buyers must evaluate is the financing package options available from manufacturers. Manufacturer financing packages are tailored programs offered by HVAC manufacturers to help customers manage the cost of acquiring these essential systems. These packages often come with various benefits and terms that can significantly influence the overall affordability and financial impact of the purchase.


The first step in evaluating manufacturer financing packages is understanding the typical components included in these offers. Most packages provide options for low-interest or zero-interest loans, extended payment plans, or even leases that allow customers to spread out payments over time. Such arrangements can make a considerable difference for those on tight budgets, as they reduce the immediate financial burden and provide more manageable monthly payments.


Another important factor to consider is any promotional offers attached to these financing packages. Manufacturers often run special promotions that include rebates, discounts, or even free installation services if financed directly through them. These promotions can present significant savings opportunities and add value beyond just spreading out payments.


However, while these financing options may seem attractive at first glance, it's crucial for buyers to carefully scrutinize the terms and conditions associated with each package. Key aspects such as interest rates after any introductory period ends, potential penalties for early repayment, and hidden fees should be thoroughly examined. Understanding these details will help avoid unexpected costs down the line.


Furthermore, it's essential to compare manufacturer financing with other available options like bank loans or dealer-specific offers. This comparison can highlight differences in interest rates and terms that might make alternative solutions more appealing depending on one's financial situation.


Lastly, assessing one's own financial health is vital before committing to any financing agreement. Buyers should have a clear picture of their credit score and debt-to-income ratio since these factors can affect not only eligibility but also the quality of terms available under different financing schemes.


In conclusion, while manufacturer financing packages offer enticing ways to afford necessary HVAC upgrades for mobile homes without breaking the bank upfront, careful evaluation is key. By analyzing all available options and understanding both short-term benefits and long-term implications of each plan, consumers can make informed decisions that align with their financial goals and ensure comfort without compromising economic stability.

When considering the installation of a new HVAC system in a mobile home, one of the most crucial aspects to evaluate is the financing options available. HVAC systems can be a significant investment, and understanding the various financing packages offered by manufacturers can make this process more manageable and affordable for homeowners.


Firstly, many HVAC manufacturers provide traditional financing plans through partnerships with financial institutions. These plans typically involve monthly payments over a set period, ranging from 12 to 72 months. The interest rates may vary based on creditworthiness and the specific terms of the agreement. This option allows homeowners to spread out the cost of their new HVAC system, making it more accessible without needing to pay the full amount upfront.


Another popular financing option is deferred payment plans. These plans allow homeowners to install an HVAC system immediately but delay payments until a later date. Often, these offers come with promotional periods where no interest is charged if the total payment is made within a specified timeframe, such as 12 or 18 months. This can be particularly beneficial for those who anticipate having funds available in the future but need an immediate solution for their heating and cooling needs.


Some manufacturers also offer in-house financing options tailored specifically for mobile home owners. These packages may include lower interest rates or longer repayment terms designed to accommodate tighter budgets often associated with mobile home living. In-house financing might also come with additional perks such as extended warranties or maintenance packages, providing added value beyond just financial support.


Leasing programs are another alternative that some manufacturers offer. Through leasing, homeowners can essentially rent their HVAC system for a monthly fee rather than purchasing it outright. This option can be advantageous because it often includes regular maintenance services and repairs at no extra cost, ensuring that the system remains efficient and reliable throughout its lifespan.


Additionally, there are energy efficiency rebates and incentives provided by both manufacturers and government programs that can significantly reduce the overall cost of an HVAC system. These rebates reward homeowners for choosing high-efficiency units that consume less energy, helping to offset initial expenses while promoting sustainable practices.


In conclusion, evaluating different financing packages when purchasing an HVAC system for a mobile home involves examining various options such as traditional loans, deferred payment plans, in-house financing tailored for specific needs, leasing programs, and taking advantage of energy efficiency rebates. By thoroughly exploring these choices, homeowners can find a solution that fits their financial situation while ensuring comfort and efficiency in their living space. With careful consideration and planning, upgrading to a new HVAC system becomes not only feasible but also financially savvy.

When considering the financing options available for purchasing a mobile home HVAC system, one of the intriguing choices is manufacturer financing. This method involves obtaining a loan directly from the company that produces the HVAC unit, rather than seeking third-party financing through banks or credit unions. Understanding the benefits and potential drawbacks of manufacturer financing is crucial for making an informed decision.


One of the primary advantages of manufacturer financing is convenience. By securing financing through the manufacturer, buyers often experience a streamlined process, as these companies are well-versed in their products and can provide tailored payment plans to suit different financial situations. Additionally, manufacturers might offer promotional incentives such as low-interest rates or deferred payments to entice customers to choose their financing options. These promotions can make manufacturer financing an attractive choice, potentially saving buyers significant amounts in interest payments over time.


Another benefit is expertise. Manufacturers possess in-depth knowledge about their products and can offer comprehensive support throughout the purchase process. They may also have dedicated customer service teams that specialize in dealing with any issues related to both the HVAC system and its financing plan. This specialized assistance can be invaluable for homeowners who seek reassurance and clarity when committing to a long-term financial obligation.


However, there are potential drawbacks associated with manufacturer financing that should not be overlooked. One major consideration is flexibility-or lack thereof-in comparison to traditional lenders. Manufacturer loans may come with strict terms and conditions that limit refinancing opportunities or impose penalties for early repayment. For buyers who anticipate fluctuations in their financial circumstances, this rigidity could become burdensome over time.


Moreover, while promotional rates can be enticing initially, they might revert to higher interest rates after a certain period, leading to increased costs over the life of the loan. It's essential for prospective buyers to carefully scrutinize all terms associated with these offers to avoid unexpected financial strain down the line.


Additionally, by opting for manufacturer financing, consumers may miss out on competitive offers from independent lenders who might provide more favorable conditions or lower interest rates based on credit scores or other factors unique to individual borrowers.


In conclusion, while manufacturer financing presents several appealing benefits such as convenience and expert support during both the purchasing and repayment processes, it also comes with inherent risks like inflexibility and potential long-term costs due to fluctuating interest rates or limited refinancing options. When evaluating different financing packages for mobile home HVAC systems, it's imperative that buyers weigh these pros and cons carefully against their personal circumstances before making a decision that aligns best with their financial goals and needs.

When evaluating different financing packages for mobile home HVAC systems, it's important to consider the role of credit card financing as a viable option for addressing immediate needs. In today's fast-paced world, having access to reliable and efficient heating and cooling systems is not just a luxury but a necessity. For mobile homeowners, ensuring that their living spaces are comfortable year-round often involves significant initial investments, particularly when upgrading or replacing HVAC units.


Credit card financing can be an attractive solution for those who require immediate installation or repairs but may not have the liquid cash readily available. One of the key advantages of using credit cards is the speed and convenience they offer. Unlike traditional loans that might require lengthy approval processes, credit cards provide instant access to funds. This immediacy is crucial in situations where an HVAC system fails during extreme weather conditions, leaving occupants vulnerable to discomfort or health risks.


Moreover, many credit card companies offer promotional periods with zero or low-interest rates on purchases made within specific time frames. If managed wisely-by ensuring the balance is paid off before the promotional period ends-homeowners can effectively spread out payments without incurring additional costs. This can ease budget constraints and allow for necessary upgrades without immediate financial strain.


However, it's essential to approach credit card financing with caution. The convenience it offers can also lead to potential pitfalls if not carefully managed. High-interest rates post-promotional periods can significantly increase the overall cost of an HVAC system if balances are not cleared promptly. Additionally, relying heavily on credit card debt can affect one's credit score and limit future borrowing capacity.


Therefore, while evaluating different financing packages for mobile home HVAC systems, individuals should weigh the pros and cons of using credit cards against other options like personal loans or installment plans offered by HVAC providers. It's advisable to conduct thorough research into various promotions available from credit card companies and assess one's ability to meet repayment requirements within stipulated timelines.


In conclusion, while credit card financing provides a quick solution for acquiring necessary funds for immediate HVAC needs in mobile homes, it requires disciplined financial management to avoid long-term debt traps. By considering both short-term benefits and potential long-term implications, homeowners can make informed decisions that ensure comfort without compromising financial stability.

In today's fast-paced world, the comfort of our living spaces has become paramount, and this is no less true for those residing in mobile homes. The need for effective heating, ventilation, and air conditioning (HVAC) systems is critical to ensure a comfortable living environment throughout the year. However, financing these systems can pose a significant challenge due to their high upfront costs. Among the various options available for financing HVAC installations in mobile homes, using credit cards has emerged as a popular choice.


Credit cards offer a flexible and convenient means of financing substantial purchases like HVAC systems. They allow homeowners to spread the cost over time rather than paying an overwhelming sum upfront. This could be particularly appealing to mobile home residents who might not have immediate access to large amounts of disposable income. Credit card companies often provide introductory offers with low or even zero percent interest rates for a specified period, making them an attractive option for buyers looking to manage their cash flow effectively.


However, it's crucial to approach credit card financing with caution and strategic planning. One key advantage-flexibility-can quickly turn into a disadvantage if not managed wisely. Once the introductory period ends, credit cards typically carry higher interest rates compared to other forms of financing such as personal loans or dedicated HVAC financing programs offered by manufacturers or retailers. Therefore, it is essential for homeowners to ensure they can pay off the balance within the promotional period to avoid accruing significant interest charges.


Moreover, using credit cards can impact one's credit score depending on how well balances are managed relative to credit limits. High utilization rates may negatively affect credit scores, potentially complicating future financial endeavors such as securing loans or mortgages.


Before committing to using a credit card for HVAC financing in a mobile home setting, it's advisable for homeowners to thoroughly evaluate their financial situation and consider alternative options that might offer better terms or lower interest rates over time. For instance, some manufacturers provide special financing packages tailored specifically for HVAC purchases which include extended payment plans at favorable terms.


Additionally, exploring government incentives and rebates can help offset some of the costs associated with upgrading HVAC systems in mobile homes. These programs aim at encouraging energy efficiency improvements by providing financial assistance or tax credits that reduce initial outlays.


Ultimately, while using credit cards offers convenience and flexibility when upgrading HVAC systems in mobile homes, it requires careful consideration and disciplined financial management. Homeowners should weigh all available options and possibly consult with financial advisors before making decisions that will impact their long-term financial health. By doing so, they can enjoy modern comforts without compromising their economic stability-a balance crucially important in achieving peace of mind alongside physical comfort in their mobile homes.

When considering the purchase of a mobile home HVAC system, evaluating different financing packages becomes a critical component of the decision-making process. This task requires a careful analysis of interest rates, credit limits, and repayment plans to ensure that the chosen financial arrangement aligns with one's budgetary constraints and long-term financial goals.


Interest rates serve as one of the primary factors influencing the overall cost of financing an HVAC system. Lower interest rates can significantly reduce the total amount paid over time, making it crucial to shop around for competitive offers. It's essential to compare rates from various lenders, including banks, credit unions, and specialized finance companies. Taking into account both fixed and variable interest rate options is also advisable. While fixed rates provide stability and predictability in monthly payments, variable rates might offer lower initial costs but come with potential fluctuations based on market conditions.


Credit limits are another key consideration when evaluating financing packages. These limits determine how much one can borrow and directly affect purchasing power. It's important to assess one's credit score before applying for financing, as this will largely dictate the available credit limit and influence interest rate offers. Understanding your credit standing allows for realistic expectations when seeking funding options and helps identify opportunities to improve terms through credit-building strategies if necessary.


Repayment plans must also be scrutinized carefully. The length of repayment terms can vary widely among different financing options-from short-term arrangements spanning a few years to extended plans lasting over a decade. While longer terms may offer lower monthly payments, they often result in higher total costs due to accumulated interest over time. Conversely, shorter terms typically involve higher monthly payments but lead to quicker debt resolution and less overall interest expense.


In addition to these financial metrics, it's vital to consider any additional fees or conditions attached to financing agreements. Some lenders might impose penalties for early repayments or stipulate mandatory insurance requirements that could add unforeseen costs.


Ultimately, selecting the right financing package for a mobile home HVAC system involves balancing immediate affordability with long-term financial viability. By thoroughly examining interest rates, understanding one's credit limits, and evaluating various repayment plans under different scenarios, buyers can secure favorable terms that harmonize with their fiscal circumstances while ensuring comfort during all seasons in their mobile homes.


Therefore, conducting comprehensive research and perhaps consulting with financial advisors can aid in making informed choices that support both present needs and future aspirations without compromising financial health.

When considering the essential comfort and energy efficiency of a mobile home, installing or upgrading an HVAC system can be a significant investment. Such an endeavor often requires exploring various financing packages to make it feasible for homeowners. In this context, understanding government assistance programs and incentives becomes crucial in evaluating different financing options.


Government assistance programs play a pivotal role in making energy-efficient HVAC systems more accessible to mobile home owners. These programs are designed to alleviate financial burdens and encourage environmentally friendly practices. For instance, the Low-Income Home Energy Assistance Program (LIHEAP) is a federal initiative that helps low-income families manage costs associated with heating and cooling their homes. By providing grants directly to households or through community action agencies, LIHEAP ensures that even financially constrained families can afford necessary upgrades without compromising their budgets.


Moreover, numerous state-specific incentives complement federal aid by targeting localized needs and climates. States with extreme weather conditions might offer additional rebates or tax credits for energy-efficient HVAC installations in mobile homes. These incentives not only reduce upfront costs but also promote long-term savings through reduced utility bills.


In addition to direct financial aid, government-backed loans provide another avenue for funding HVAC projects. Programs such as the Federal Housing Administration's Title I Property Improvement Loan allow homeowners to borrow money specifically for home improvements, including new HVAC systems. These loans often come with lower interest rates compared to traditional bank loans, making them an attractive option for those who might not qualify under conventional lending criteria.


Tax incentives further enhance the appeal of upgrading mobile home HVAC systems. The Energy Efficient Home Improvement Credit is one such benefit that allows taxpayers to claim deductions on their federal taxes when they invest in qualifying energy-efficient products. Such incentives effectively lower the net cost of these improvements by offsetting some expenses during tax season.


Evaluating these government-assisted financing packages involves considering both immediate affordability and long-term benefits. While upfront grants or rebates can significantly cut initial expenses, tax credits may offer more substantial savings over time as they recoup part of the investment during subsequent fiscal years.


In conclusion, navigating the landscape of financing packages for mobile home HVAC systems reveals a wealth of opportunities through government assistance programs and incentives. By tapping into these resources, homeowners can achieve enhanced comfort and efficiency while minimizing financial strain. Ultimately, informed evaluation of available options will ensure that individuals choose the most beneficial path tailored to their specific economic situation and climate needs.

Evaluating different financing packages for mobile home HVAC systems is a crucial step in ensuring that homeowners can afford necessary upgrades without straining their budgets. Mobile homes, often perceived as an affordable housing option, still require efficient heating, ventilation, and air conditioning systems to provide comfort and maintain energy efficiency. Fortunately, both state and federal programs offer financial assistance to mobile home owners looking to upgrade their HVAC systems.


Firstly, it is essential to understand the significance of these programs. Many mobile homes are older models with outdated HVAC systems that not only consume more energy but also lead to higher utility bills. Upgrading these systems can be expensive upfront; however, the long-term savings on energy costs make it a worthwhile investment. Recognizing this need, state and federal governments have developed various programs aimed at alleviating the financial burden on homeowners.


At the federal level, one of the most prominent programs is the Weatherization Assistance Program (WAP). This initiative provides funds to improve the energy efficiency of homes for low-income families by installing insulation, reducing air leakage, and replacing inefficient heating and cooling equipment. By leveraging this program, mobile home owners can access grants or low-interest loans specifically for upgrading their HVAC systems.


Additionally, many states offer supplementary incentives tailored towards energy efficiency improvements in mobile homes. For instance, some states have established rebate programs or tax credits for residents who purchase Energy Star-rated appliances or upgrade their home's insulation and HVAC systems. These incentives significantly reduce the overall cost of making such improvements.


Moreover, utility companies often collaborate with state agencies to offer special financing packages or rebates for customers who invest in energy-efficient upgrades. These partnerships benefit both parties: homeowners reduce their monthly expenses while utilities meet regulatory requirements related to energy conservation.


When evaluating different financing packages for mobile home HVAC upgrades, it is crucial for homeowners to conduct thorough research on available options in their region. They should begin by contacting local government offices or visiting websites dedicated to state energy offices where they can find comprehensive information about applicable programs.


Furthermore, consulting with professionals who specialize in mobile home improvements could provide valuable insights into maximizing available benefits. These experts might have knowledge about lesser-known local initiatives or emerging technologies that enhance efficiency even further.


In conclusion, exploring available state and federal programs is an excellent strategy for mobile home owners seeking affordable ways to improve their HVAC systems' performance without breaking their budget constraints. By taking advantage of these opportunities-whether through grants from weatherization assistance projects at the national level or accessing local rebates-homeowners not only save money but also contribute positively toward environmental sustainability by reducing overall household carbon footprints through increased energy efficiency measures within their living spaces.

When considering the financing of a mobile home HVAC system, understanding eligibility requirements and application processes is crucial. Mobile homes often require specialized heating, ventilation, and air conditioning systems due to their unique structural characteristics. Therefore, securing the appropriate financing package can make a significant difference in both affordability and efficiency.


Firstly, it is essential to evaluate the eligibility criteria set forth by various lenders or financial institutions offering HVAC financing for mobile homes. These criteria typically include factors such as credit score, income level, employment history, and existing debt obligations. A good credit score often opens doors to more favorable terms; however, there are options available for those with less-than-perfect credit histories. Lenders may also consider the age and condition of the mobile home itself since older units might pose higher risks.


The next step involves navigating through the application process. It's advisable to begin by gathering all necessary documentation such as proof of income, identification records, and any current mortgage statements. This preparation ensures a smoother application experience. Many lenders offer online applications that streamline this process; however, some might require in-person consultations to discuss options more thoroughly.


Understanding different types of financing packages is equally important once eligibility has been established. Some common options include personal loans specifically tailored for home improvement projects or manufacturer financing directly from HVAC system providers. Personal loans offer flexibility but may come at higher interest rates compared to secured loans tied directly to property equity.


Manufacturer financing can be advantageous if offered at low or zero interest rates as part of promotional deals-though these often require prompt repayment schedules to maintain favorable terms. Additionally, government programs aimed at energy efficiency improvements might provide grants or subsidized loans that reduce overall costs significantly.


It's crucial for applicants to compare these packages not only based on immediate affordability but also long-term costs including interest rates and potential penalties for early repayment or defaults. Consulting with financial advisors who specialize in home improvement loans can provide valuable insights tailored specifically to individual circumstances.


In conclusion, while evaluating different financing packages for mobile home HVAC systems might initially seem daunting due to varied eligibility requirements and complex application processes-it ultimately empowers homeowners by enhancing their understanding of available resources tailored specifically towards their needs. By carefully assessing each option's benefits against its costs while ensuring all requisite documents are prepared beforehand-one can secure an optimal solution that balances both economic feasibility with enhanced living comfort within one's mobile abode.

When considering the purchase of a new HVAC system for a mobile home, one of the most important aspects to evaluate is the variety of financing packages available. Each package offers distinct costs and potential savings, making it essential to compare them carefully to ensure that you select the best option for your financial situation and long-term benefits.


Firstly, it's crucial to understand that different financing packages can vary significantly in terms of interest rates, repayment periods, and additional fees. A low-interest loan might initially seem like the most attractive option because it could reduce monthly payments. However, it's important to consider the total cost over time. Some loans with lower interest rates may have longer repayment periods, which could result in paying more in interest over the life of the loan.


Another factor to consider is any available incentives or rebates associated with certain financing options. Some lenders or manufacturers offer rebates on energy-efficient HVAC systems as part of their financing packages. These incentives can significantly offset initial costs and contribute to long-term savings by reducing energy consumption and utility bills.


Additionally, explore whether any package includes maintenance plans or extended warranties. While these might increase upfront costs slightly, they can lead to substantial savings over time by covering repairs or providing regular maintenance services that prolong the life and efficiency of your HVAC system.


It's also wise to consider flexible payment options that might be included within certain packages. For instance, some lenders allow for bi-weekly payments instead of monthly ones, which can help reduce interest accumulation over time and accelerate debt payoff without causing a significant strain on your budget.


Lastly, take into account your personal financial goals and current situation when comparing different financing options. Are you looking for minimal impact on monthly cash flow? Or perhaps you're aiming for overall cost-effectiveness in the long run? Balancing these considerations will guide you towards selecting a package aligned with both your immediate needs and future aspirations.


In conclusion, evaluating different financing packages for a mobile home HVAC system requires a comprehensive approach that considers both immediate costs and long-term savings potential. By analyzing interest rates, incentives, payment flexibility, and additional benefits such as maintenance plans or warranties, you'll be better equipped to make an informed decision that optimizes financial health while ensuring comfort in your home.

When evaluating different financing packages for mobile home HVAC systems, understanding the overall cost-effectiveness is crucial. Financing a new HVAC system can be a daunting task, especially when considering the various options available in today's market. Each option presents its own set of advantages and drawbacks, making it essential to analyze them thoroughly to ensure that the chosen plan aligns with one's financial situation and long-term goals.


First and foremost, one must consider traditional bank loans as a viable option. These loans often provide competitive interest rates for borrowers with strong credit ratings. The fixed nature of these loans allows for predictable monthly payments, which can aid in budgeting. However, they may require collateral or come with stringent qualification criteria, potentially limiting their accessibility for some homeowners.


Another popular avenue is manufacturer financing or dealer promotions. These financing packages often entice consumers with low introductory interest rates or even zero-percent interest offers for an initial period. While this may seem appealing at first glance, it is crucial to examine the terms closely. Sometimes these low rates are temporary, and once they expire, significantly higher interest rates might apply. Homeowners need to assess their ability to repay within the promotional period to avoid unexpected financial burdens.


Personal loans offer another route for those seeking flexibility without tying the loan to their property as collateral. They typically have higher interest rates compared to secured loans but can be easier and faster to obtain due to fewer requirements and paperwork involved. This path could be beneficial for individuals needing quick access to funds but who possess a clear plan for repayment.


Home equity lines of credit (HELOCs) also present an intriguing option by leveraging one's existing home equity as collateral. HELOCs generally offer lower interest rates since they are secured by the home itself. The revolving credit nature provides flexibility in borrowing amounts as needed over time instead of receiving a lump sum upfront. However, risking one's home as collateral requires careful consideration of personal financial stability and future market conditions.


Moreover, energy efficiency grants or rebates from governmental bodies or utility companies should not be overlooked when calculating cost-effectiveness. These programs can offset some upfront costs associated with purchasing energy-efficient HVAC systems through direct discounts or tax incentives, adding value beyond traditional financing routes.


Ultimately, the choice among these various financing options hinges on individual circumstances such as credit score, current equity in one's home, income stability, and long-term financial plans. A comprehensive evaluation should involve calculating total costs over time-including any potential penalties or fees-alongside immediate affordability considerations like monthly payment amounts.


In conclusion, determining the most cost-effective financing package requires careful scrutiny of each alternative's terms coupled with introspective analysis regarding personal finances and future prospects. By weighing immediate costs against long-term savings opportunities provided by efficient systems or favorable loan agreements-and considering any available incentives-homeowners can make informed decisions that best serve both their current needs and future aspirations in maintaining comfort within their mobile homes efficiently and economically.

In today's rapidly evolving world, the emphasis on energy efficiency is more pronounced than ever. As we confront escalating energy costs and environmental concerns, the need for sustainable solutions in all sectors becomes increasingly critical. One area that stands out for its potential in long-term savings is the improvement of Heating, Ventilation, and Air Conditioning (HVAC) systems in mobile homes. Evaluating different financing packages for these upgrades not only enhances comfort but also offers a pathway to significant financial savings over time.


Mobile homes, often characterized by their affordability and flexibility, present unique challenges when it comes to energy efficiency. Many older models were built with less efficient materials and technologies, leading to higher energy consumption and subsequently, increased utility bills. However, modern advancements in HVAC technology provide an opportunity to address these inefficiencies head-on.


Investing in energy-efficient HVAC systems can lead to substantial long-term savings through reduced energy usage. These systems are designed to consume less power while maintaining optimal performance levels. For instance, high-efficiency heat pumps or air conditioners use advanced compressors and refrigerants that minimize electricity consumption without compromising on cooling or heating effectiveness. Over time, this translates into lower monthly utility bills-savings that can accumulate significantly over the years.


However, the initial cost of upgrading HVAC systems can be daunting for many mobile home owners. This is where exploring different financing packages becomes crucial. There are several options available today that cater specifically to homeowners looking to make their properties more energy-efficient without bearing an immediate financial burden.


One option is government-sponsored programs offering low-interest loans or rebates for installing energy-efficient appliances. These programs aim to incentivize homeowners by reducing the upfront costs associated with such improvements. Additionally, some utility companies offer similar incentives or even subsidized rates for those who adopt greener technologies.


Another viable option is private financing through banks or credit unions that have started recognizing the value of sustainability in lending practices. Many institutions now offer tailored loans with flexible repayment terms specifically designed for energy-efficient home improvements.


Moreover, property-assessed clean energy (PACE) financing provides another alternative by allowing homeowners to finance upgrades through property tax assessments spread over several years. This method ties repayments directly to property taxes rather than personal credit histories-a boon for individuals wary of traditional loan structures affecting their credit scores.


While each financing package has its pros and cons depending on individual circumstances such as credit history and income level, they collectively represent a commitment towards fostering a more sustainable environment while ensuring economic benefits remain accessible across diverse demographics.


In conclusion, improving HVAC systems within mobile homes offers dual advantages: enhancing living conditions through better climate control while simultaneously realizing substantial long-term savings via reduced energy expenditures-all achievable through strategic evaluation of available financing packages tailored towards promoting eco-friendly practices among homeowners nationwide.


Embracing these changes not only contributes positively towards mitigating environmental impacts but also aligns with broader societal shifts towards sustainable living-a testament to how small changes at home can yield far-reaching benefits both economically and ecologically over time.

When evaluating different financing packages for mobile home HVAC systems, it's essential to approach the decision with a comprehensive understanding of your financial situation, the terms and conditions of potential loans or payment plans, and the long-term implications of each option. Selecting an appropriate financing plan can significantly influence not only your immediate budget but also the overall cost-effectiveness and satisfaction with your investment in home comfort.


First and foremost, you should begin by assessing your current financial state. This involves taking stock of your savings, monthly income, existing debts, and expenses. Understanding these elements will help you determine a realistic budget for HVAC financing without overextending yourself financially. It's crucial to have a clear picture of what you can afford on a monthly basis while also considering any unforeseen expenses that might arise.


Once you've established your budget, it's important to thoroughly research different financing options available for mobile home HVAC systems. These may include personal loans, credit cards, manufacturer financing programs, or energy efficiency incentive programs offered by local governments or utilities. Each option comes with its own set of interest rates, repayment terms, and eligibility requirements. Carefully comparing these variables can help you identify which plans align best with your financial capabilities and goals.


Interest rates are a critical factor when choosing a financing plan. Lower interest rates generally mean lower overall costs; however, they might come with stringent qualification criteria such as excellent credit scores or higher down payments. Conversely, higher interest rate options might be more accessible but could lead to paying much more over time.


Another vital consideration is the loan term-the duration over which you will repay the borrowed amount. Shorter terms typically result in higher monthly payments but less interest paid over the life of the loan. Longer terms may offer more manageable monthly payments but increase total costs due to accumulated interest.


Don't forget to read the fine print regarding fees associated with each financing package. Origination fees, prepayment penalties, late payment charges-these can all add up if you're not careful. It's advisable to choose plans that offer transparency without hidden costs that could surprise you later on.


Additionally, consider any special promotions or discounts provided by manufacturers or installers during certain times of the year; these can sometimes make specific packages more appealing than others under normal circumstances.


Finally, weigh how each option aligns with both short-term needs and long-term objectives for your household's comfort and energy efficiency goals. Investing in an efficient HVAC system now could reduce utility bills substantially down the line-and selecting an affordable financing plan will ensure you're able to maintain those benefits without financial strain.


In conclusion, selecting a suitable financing plan for a mobile home HVAC system requires thoughtful deliberation across several key areas: personal financial health assessment; rigorous comparison of interest rates and loan terms; scrutiny of additional fees; awareness of promotional opportunities; and alignment with future household objectives. By carefully navigating these considerations step-by-step rather than rushing into a decision fueled by urgency or convenience alone-you'll place yourself in a position to enjoy enhanced climate control at home within an economically sustainable framework.

When it comes to making informed financial decisions about mobile home HVAC installations, particularly in the context of evaluating different financing packages, it's crucial to approach the process with a strategic mindset. Mobile homes often require specialized heating and cooling systems due to their unique structural features, and ensuring efficient climate control can significantly enhance comfort and energy efficiency. However, the costs associated with installing or upgrading an HVAC system can be substantial, which makes selecting the right financing package an important step in managing your finances wisely.


Firstly, understanding your financial standing is pivotal. Before diving into the various financing options available for mobile home HVAC systems, take a comprehensive look at your current financial health. This includes assessing your credit score, monthly budget, and overall financial obligations. A strong credit score may grant you access to more favorable loan terms with lower interest rates. Conversely, if your credit score needs improvement, you might face higher rates but could still find viable options tailored for those building or repairing their credit.


Once you have a clear picture of your financial situation, research is your next best ally. The market offers a variety of financing packages that cater specifically to mobile home improvements such as HVAC installations. These can range from personal loans offered by banks and credit unions to specialized home improvement loans or manufacturer-specific financing programs. Evaluate these options based on factors like interest rates, loan term lengths, fees associated with early repayment or late payments, and any additional benefits they might offer.


Another crucial aspect is understanding the total cost of ownership beyond just the installation price tag. When evaluating different financing packages for an HVAC system in a mobile home setting, consider not only the initial outlay but also long-term operating costs. Energy-efficient models might come at a premium upfront but can result in significant savings over time through reduced utility bills-a factor that should weigh heavily in any cost-benefit analysis.


It's equally important to scrutinize each lender's credibility and customer service reputation. Reading reviews from other customers who have financed similar projects can provide invaluable insights into what you might expect during both the application process and throughout the life of the loan.


Additionally, consult with professionals who specialize in mobile home HVAC installations. They can offer guidance on what type of system best suits your needs while staying within budget constraints-potentially recommending systems that qualify for government incentives or tax rebates designed to promote energy efficiency.


Finally, never underestimate the power of negotiation; lenders are often willing to discuss terms if they see you as a viable candidate for their services. Don't hesitate to ask questions about potential discounts or promotions that could make one package more appealing than another.


In conclusion, making informed financial decisions regarding mobile home HVAC installations involves thorough preparation and research into available financing packages. By taking stock of personal finances first and then exploring all available options while considering long-term costs and benefits-homeowners can find an optimal solution that balances affordability with functionality without compromising on quality or service reliability.

Mixed-mode ventilation is a hybrid approach to space conditioning that uses a combination of natural ventilation from operable windows (either manually or automatically controlled), and mechanical systems that include air distribution equipment and refrigeration equipment for cooling. A well-designed mixed-mode building begins with intelligent facade design to minimize cooling loads. It then integrates the use of air conditioning when and where it is necessary, with the use of natural ventilation whenever it is feasible or desirable, to maximize comfort while avoiding the significant energy use and operating costs of year-round air conditioning.[1][2]

References

[edit]
  1. ^ About Mixed Mode, Center for the Built Environment (CBE), University of California, Berkeley, 2005.
  2. ^ Bienvenido-Huertas, David; de la Hoz-Torres, María Luisa; Aguilar, Antonio J.; Tejedor, Blanca; Sánchez-García, Daniel (2023-11-01). "Holistic overview of natural ventilation and mixed mode in built environment of warm climate zones and hot seasons". Building and Environment. 245: 110942. doi:10.1016/j.buildenv.2023.110942. hdl:10481/88452. ISSN 0360-1323.

 

 

Air pollution from a coking oven
2016 Environmental Performance Index – darker colors indicate lower concentrations of fine particulate matter and nitrogen dioxide, as well as better indoor air quality.
Deaths from air pollution per 100,000 inhabitants (IHME, 2019)

Air pollution is the contamination of air due to the presence of substances called pollutants in the atmosphere that are harmful to the health of humans and other living beings, or cause damage to the climate or to materials.[1] It is also the contamination of the indoor or outdoor environment either by chemical, physical, or biological agents that alters the natural features of the atmosphere.[1] There are many different types of air pollutants, such as gases (including ammonia, carbon monoxide, sulfur dioxide, nitrous oxides, methane and chlorofluorocarbons), particulates (both organic and inorganic) and biological molecules. Air pollution can cause diseases, allergies, and even death to humans; it can also cause harm to other living organisms such as animals and crops, and may damage the natural environment (for example, climate change, ozone depletion or habitat degradation) or built environment (for example, acid rain).[2] Air pollution can be caused by both human activities[3] and natural phenomena.[4]

Air quality is closely related to the Earth's climate and ecosystems globally. Many of the contributors of air pollution are also sources of greenhouse emission i.e., burning of fossil fuel.[1]

Air pollution is a significant risk factor for a number of pollution-related diseases, including respiratory infections, heart disease, chronic obstructive pulmonary disease (COPD), stroke, and lung cancer.[5] Growing evidence suggests that air pollution exposure may be associated with reduced IQ scores, impaired cognition,[6] increased risk for psychiatric disorders such as depression[7] and detrimental perinatal health.[8] The human health effects of poor air quality are far reaching, but principally affect the body's respiratory system and the cardiovascular system.[9][10] Individual reactions to air pollutants depend on the type of pollutant a person is exposed to,[11][12] the degree of exposure, and the individual's health status and genetics.[13]

Air pollution is the largest environmental risk factor for disease and premature death[5][14] and the fourth largest risk factor overall for human health.[15] Air pollution causes the premature deaths of around 7 million people worldwide each year,[5] or a global mean loss of life expectancy (LLE) of 2.9 years,[16] and there has been no significant change in the number of deaths caused by all forms of pollution since at least 2015.[14][17][18] Outdoor air pollution attributable to fossil fuel use alone causes ~3.61 million deaths annually,[19] making it one of the top contributors to human death.[5] Anthropogenic ozone causes around 470,000 premature deaths a year and fine particulate (PM2.5) pollution around another 2.1 million.[20] The scope of the air pollution crisis is large: In 2018, WHO estimated that "9 out of 10 people breathe air containing high levels of pollutants."[21] Although the health consequences are extensive, the way the problem is handled is considered largely haphazard[22][21][23] or neglected.[14]

The World Bank has estimated that welfare losses (premature deaths) and productivity losses (lost labour) caused by air pollution cost the world economy $5 trillion per year.[24][25][26] The costs of air pollution are generally an externality to the contemporary economic system and most human activity, although they are sometimes recovered through monitoring, legislation, and regulation.[27][28]

Many different technologies and strategies are available for reducing air pollution.[29] Although a majority of countries have air pollution laws, according to UNEP, 43 percent of countries lack a legal definition of air pollution, 31 percent lack outdoor air quality standards, 49 percent restrict their definition to outdoor pollution only, and just 31 percent have laws for tackling pollution originating from outside their borders.[30] National air quality laws have often been highly effective, notably the 1956 Clean Air Act in Britain and the US Clean Air Act, introduced in 1963.[31][32] Some of these efforts have been successful at the international level, such as the Montreal Protocol,[33] which reduced the release of harmful ozone depleting chemicals, and the 1985 Helsinki Protocol,[34] which reduced sulfur emissions,[35] while others, such as international action on climate change,[36][37][38] have been less successful.

Sources of air pollution

[edit]

There are many different sources of air pollution. Some air pollutants (such as nitrogen oxides) originate mainly from human activities,[39] while some (notably radon gas) come mostly from natural sources.[40] However, many air pollutants (including dust and sulfur dioxide) come from a mixture of natural and human sources.[41]

Anthropogenic (human-made) sources

[edit]
Demolition of the cooling towers of a power station, Athlone, Cape Town, South Africa, 2010
Controlled burning of a field outside of Statesboro, Georgia, US, in preparation for spring planting
Smoking of fish over an open fire in Ghana, 2018
Burning of joss paper in a Chinese temple in Hong Kong
  • Stationary sources include:
    • fossil-fuel power plants and biomass power plants both have smoke stacks (see for example environmental impact of the coal industry)[42]
      • Oil and gas sites that have methane leaks[43][44][45][46]
    • burning of traditional biomass such as wood, crop waste and dung. (In developing and poor countries,[47] traditional biomass burning is the major source of air pollutants.[48][49] It is also the main source of particulate pollution in many developed areas including the UK & New South Wales.[50][51] Its pollutants include PAHs.[52])
    • manufacturing facilities (factories)[53]
      • a 2014 study found that in China equipment-, machinery-, and devices-manufacturing and construction sectors contributed more than 50% of air pollutant emissions.[54][better source needed] This high emission is due to high emission intensity and high emission factors in its industrial structure.[55]
    • construction[56][57]
    • renovation[58]
    • waste incineration (incinerators as well as open and uncontrolled fires of mismanaged waste, making up about a fourth of municipal solid terrestrial waste)[59][60]
    • furnaces and other types of fuel-burning heating devices[61]
  • Mobile sources include motor vehicles, trains (particularly diesel locomotives and DMUs), marine vessels and aircraft[62] as well as rockets and re-entry of components and debris.[63] The air pollution externality of cars enters the air from the exhaust gas and car tires (including microplastics[64]). Road vehicles make a significant amount of all air pollution (typically, for example, around a third to a half of all nitrogen dioxide emissions)[65][66][67] and are a major driver of climate change.[68][69]
  • Agriculture and forest management strategies using controlled burns. Practices like slash-and-burn in forests like the Amazon cause large air pollution with the deforestation.[70] Controlled or prescribed burning is a practice used in forest management, agriculture, prairie restoration, and greenhouse gas reduction.[71] Foresters can use controlled fire as a tool because fire is a natural feature of both forest and grassland ecology.[72][73] Controlled burning encourages the sprouting of some desirable forest trees, resulting in a forest renewal.[74]

There are also sources from processes other than combustion:

  • Fumes from paint, hair spray, varnish, aerosol sprays and other solvents. These can be substantial; emissions from these sources was estimated to account for almost half of pollution from volatile organic compounds in the Los Angeles basin in the 2010s.[75]
  • Waste deposition in landfills produces methane[76] and open burning of waste releases harmful substances.[77]
  • Nuclear weapons, toxic gases, germ warfare, and rocketry are examples of military resources.[78]
  • Agricultural emissions and emissions from meat production or livestock contribute substantially to air pollution[79][80]
    • Fertilized farmland may be a major source of nitrogen oxides.[81]
Mean acidifying emissions (air pollution) of different foods per 100g of protein[82]
Food Types Acidifying Emissions (g SO2eq per 100g protein)
Beef
 
343.6
Cheese
 
165.5
Pork
 
142.7
Lamb and mutton
 
139.0
Farmed crustaceans
 
133.1
Poultry
 
102.4
Farmed fish
 
65.9
Eggs
 
53.7
Groundnuts
 
22.6
Peas
 
8.5
Tofu
 
6.7

Natural sources

[edit]
Dust storm approaching Stratford, Texas, in 1935
  • Dust from natural sources, usually large areas of land with little or no vegetation.
  • Methane, emitted by the digestion of food by animals, for example cattle.
  • Radon gas from radioactive decay within the Earth's crust. Radon is a colorless, odorless, naturally occurring, radioactive noble gas that is formed from the decay of radium. It is considered to be a health hazard. Radon gas from natural sources can accumulate in buildings, especially in confined areas such as the basement and it is the second most frequent cause of lung cancer, after cigarette smoking.
  • Smoke and carbon monoxide from wildfires. During periods of active wildfires, smoke from uncontrolled biomass combustion can make up almost 75% of all air pollution by concentration.[83]
  • Vegetation, in some regions, emits environmentally significant amounts of volatile organic compounds (VOCs) on warmer days. These VOCs react with primary anthropogenic pollutants – specifically, NOx, SO2, and anthropogenic organic carbon compounds – to produce a seasonal haze of secondary pollutants.[84] Black gum, poplar, oak and willow are some examples of vegetation that can produce abundant VOCs. The VOC production from these species result in ozone levels up to eight times higher than the low-impact tree species.[85]
  • Volcanic activity, which produces sulfur, chlorine, and ash particulates.[86]

Emission factors

[edit]
Beijing air in 2005 after rain (left) and a smoggy day (right)

Air pollutant emission factors are reported representative values that aim to link the quantity of a pollutant released into the ambient air to an activity connected with that pollutant's release.[2][87][88][89] The weight of the pollutant divided by a unit weight, volume, distance, or time of the activity generating the pollutant is how these factors are commonly stated (e.g., kilograms of particulate emitted per tonne of coal burned). These criteria make estimating emissions from diverse sources of pollution easier. Most of the time, these components are just averages of all available data of acceptable quality, and they are thought to be typical of long-term averages.

The Stockholm Convention on Persistent Organic Pollutants identified pesticides and other persistent organic pollutants of concern. These include dioxins and furans which are unintentionally created by combustion of organics, like open burning of plastics, and are endocrine disruptors and mutagens.

E-waste processing in Agbogbloshie, Ghana, using open-burning of electronics to access valuable metals like copper. Open burning of plastics is common in many parts of the world without the capacity for processing. Especially without proper protections, heavy metals and other contaminates can seep into the soil, and create water pollution and air pollution.

The United States Environmental Protection Agency has published a compilation of air pollutant emission factors for a wide range of industrial sources.[90] The United Kingdom, Australia, Canada, and many other countries have published similar compilations, as well as the European Environment Agency.[91][92][93][94]

Pollutants

[edit]
Schematic drawing, causes and effects of air pollution: (1) greenhouse effect, (2) particulate contamination, (3) increased UV radiation, (4) acid rain, (5) increased ground-level ozone concentration, (6) increased levels of nitrogen oxides

An air pollutant is a material in the air that can have many effects on humans and the ecosystem.[95] The substance can be solid particles, liquid droplets, or gases, and often takes the form of an aerosol (solid particles or liquid droplets dispersed and carried by a gas).[96] A pollutant can be of natural origin or man-made. Pollutants are classified as primary or secondary. Primary pollutants are usually produced by processes such as ash from a volcanic eruption.

Other examples include carbon monoxide gas from motor vehicle exhausts or sulfur dioxide released from factories. Secondary pollutants are not emitted directly. Rather, they form in the air when primary pollutants react or interact. Ground level ozone is a prominent example of a secondary pollutant. Some pollutants may be both primary and secondary: they are both emitted directly and formed from other primary pollutants.

Primary pollutants

[edit]

Pollutants emitted into the atmosphere by human activity include:

  • Ammonia: Emitted mainly by agricultural waste. Ammonia is a compound with the formula NH3. It is normally encountered as a gas with a characteristic pungent odor. Ammonia contributes significantly to the nutritional needs of terrestrial organisms by serving as a precursor to foodstuffs and fertilizers. Ammonia, either directly or indirectly, is also a building block for the synthesis of many pharmaceuticals. Although in wide use, ammonia is both caustic and hazardous.[97] In the atmosphere, ammonia reacts with oxides of nitrogen and sulfur to form secondary particles.[98]
  • Carbon dioxide (CO2): Carbon dioxide is a natural component of the atmosphere, essential for plant life and given off by the human respiratory system.[99] It is potentially lethal at very high concentrations (typically 100 times "normal" atmospheric levels).[100][101] Although the World Health Organization recognizes CO2 as a climate pollutant, it does not include the gas in its Air Quality Guidelines or set recommended targets for it.[102] Because of its role as a greenhouse gas, CO2 has been described as "the worst climate pollutant".[103] Statements such as this refer to its long-term atmospheric effects rather than shorter-term effects on such things as human health, food crops, and buildings. This question of terminology has practical consequences, for example, in determining whether the U.S. Clean Air Act (which is designed to improve air quality) is deemed to regulate CO2 emissions.[104] That issue was resolved in the United States by the Inflation Reduction Act of 2022, which specifically amended the Clean Air Act "to define the carbon dioxide produced by the burning of fossil fuels as an 'air pollutant.'"[105] CO2 currently forms about 410 parts per million (ppm) of Earth's atmosphere, compared to about 280 ppm in pre-industrial times,[106] and billions of metric tons of CO2 are emitted annually by burning of fossil fuels.[107] CO2 increase in Earth's atmosphere has been accelerating.[108] CO2 is an asphyxiant gas and not classified as toxic or harmful in general.[109] Workplace exposure limits exist in places like UK (5,000 ppm for long-term exposure and 15,000 ppm for short-term exposure).[101] Natural disasters like the limnic eruption at Lake Nyos can result in a sudden release of huge amount of CO2 as well.[110]
  • Carbon monoxide (CO): CO is a colorless, odorless, toxic gas.[111] It is a product of combustion of fuel such as natural gas, coal or wood. Vehicular exhaust contributes to the majority of carbon monoxide let into the atmosphere. It creates a smog type formation in the air that has been linked to many lung diseases and disruptions to the natural environment and animals.
  • Chlorofluorocarbons (CFCs): Emitted from goods that are now prohibited from use; harmful to the ozone layer. These are gases emitted by air conditioners, freezers, aerosol sprays, and other similar devices. CFCs reach the stratosphere after being released into the atmosphere.[112] They interact with other gases here, causing harm to the ozone layer. UV rays are able to reach the Earth's surface as a result of this. This can result in skin cancer, eye problems, and even plant damage.[113]
  • Nitrogen oxides (NOx): Nitrogen oxides, particularly nitrogen dioxide, are expelled from high temperature combustion, and are also produced during thunderstorms by electric discharge. They can be seen as a brown haze dome above or a plume downwind of cities. Nitrogen dioxide is a chemical compound with the formula NO2. It is one of several nitrogen oxides. One of the most prominent air pollutants, this reddish-brown toxic gas has a characteristic sharp, biting odor.
  • Odors: Such as from garbage, sewage, and industrial processes.
  • Particulate matter/particles (PM), also known as particulates, atmospheric particulate matter (APM), or fine particles, are microscopic solid or liquid particles suspended in a gas.[114] Aerosol is a mixture of particles and gas. Volcanoes, dust storms, forest and grassland fires, living plants, and sea spray are all sources of particles. Aerosols are produced by human activities such as the combustion of fossil fuels in automobiles, power plants, and numerous industrial processes.[115] Averaged worldwide, anthropogenic aerosols – those made by human activities – currently account for approximately 10% of the atmosphere. Increased levels of fine particles in the air are linked to health hazards such as heart disease,[116] altered lung function and lung cancer. Particulates are related to respiratory infections and can be particularly harmful to those with conditions like asthma.[117]
  • Persistent organic pollutants, which can attach to particulates. Persistent organic pollutants are organic compounds that are resistant to environmental degradation due to chemical, biological, or photolytic processes (POPs). As a result, they've been discovered to survive in the environment, be capable of long-range transmission, bioaccumulate in human and animal tissue, biomagnify in food chains, and pose a major threat to human health and the ecosystem.[118]
  • Persistent free radicals connected to airborne fine particles are linked to cardiopulmonary disease.[119][120]
  • Polycyclic Aromatic Hydrocarbons (PAHs): a group of aromatic compounds formed from the incomplete combustion of organic compounds including coal and oil and tobacco.[121]
  • Radioactive pollutants: Produced by nuclear explosions, nuclear events, war explosives, and natural processes such as the radioactive decay of radon.
  • Sulfur oxides (SOx): particularly sulfur dioxide, a chemical compound with the formula SO2. SO2 is produced by volcanoes and in various industrial processes. Coal and petroleum often contain sulfur compounds, and their combustion generates sulfur dioxide. Further oxidation of SO2, usually in the presence of a catalyst such as NO2, forms H2SO4, and thus acid rain is formed. This is one of the causes for concern over the environmental impact of the use of these fuels as power sources.
  • Toxic metals, such as lead and mercury, especially their compounds.
  • Volatile organic compounds (VOC): VOCs are both indoor and outdoor air pollutants.[122] They are categorized as either methane (CH4) or non-methane (NMVOCs). Methane is an extremely efficient greenhouse gas which contributes to enhanced global warming. Other hydrocarbon VOCs are also significant greenhouse gases because of their role in creating ozone and prolonging the life of methane in the atmosphere. This effect varies depending on local air quality. The aromatic NMVOCs benzene, toluene and xylene are suspected carcinogens and may lead to leukemia with prolonged exposure. 1,3-butadiene is another dangerous compound often associated with industrial use.

Secondary pollutants

[edit]

Secondary pollutants include:

  • Ground level ozone (O3): Ozone is created when NOx and VOCs mix. It is a significant part of the troposphere.[123] It's also an important part of the ozone layer, which can be found in different sections of the stratosphere. Photochemical and chemical reactions involving it fuel many of the chemical activities that occur in the atmosphere during the day and night. It is a pollutant and a component of smog that is produced in large quantities as a result of human activities (mostly the combustion of fossil fuels).[124] O3 is largely produced by chemical reactions involving NOx gases (nitrogen oxides, especially from combustion) and volatile organic compounds in the presence of sunlight. Due to the influence of temperature and sunlight on this reaction, high ozone levels are most common on hot summer afternoons.[125]
  • Peroxyacetyl nitrate (C2H3NO5): similarly formed from NOx and VOCs.
  • Photochemical smog: particles are formed from gaseous primary contaminants and chemicals.[126] Smog is a type of pollution that occurs in the atmosphere. Smog is caused by a huge volume of coal being burned in a certain region, resulting in a mixture of smoke and sulfur dioxide.[127] Modern smog is usually caused by automotive and industrial emissions, which are acted on in the atmosphere by UV light from the sun to produce secondary pollutants, which then combine with the primary emissions to generate photochemical smog.

Other pollutants

[edit]

There are many other chemicals classed as hazardous air pollutants. Some of these are regulated in the USA under the Clean Air Act and in Europe under numerous directives (including the Air "Framework" Directive, 96/62/EC, on ambient air quality assessment and management, Directive 98/24/EC, on risks related to chemical agents at work, and Directive 2004/107/EC covering heavy metals and polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons in ambient air).[128][129]

To display all pages, subcategories and images click on the "â–º":
Hazardous air pollutants (4 C, 68 P)

Exposure

[edit]

The risk of air pollution is determined by the pollutant's hazard and the amount of exposure to that pollutant. Air pollution exposure can be measured for a person, a group, such as a neighborhood or a country's children, or an entire population. For example, one would want to determine a geographic area's exposure to a dangerous air pollution, taking into account the various microenvironments and age groups. This can be calculated[130] as an inhalation exposure. This would account for daily exposure in various settings, e.g. different indoor micro-environments and outdoor locations. The exposure needs to include different ages and other demographic groups, especially infants, children, pregnant women, and other sensitive subpopulations.[130]

For each specific time that the subgroup is in the setting and engaged in particular activities, the exposure to an air pollutant must integrate the concentrations of the air pollutant with regard to the time spent in each setting and the respective inhalation rates for each subgroup, playing, cooking, reading, working, spending time in traffic, etc. A little child's inhaling rate, for example, will be lower than that of an adult. A young person engaging in strenuous exercise will have a faster rate of breathing than a child engaged in sedentary activity. The daily exposure must therefore include the amount of time spent in each micro-environmental setting as well as the kind of activities performed there. The air pollutant concentration in each microactivity/microenvironmental setting is summed to indicate the exposure.[130]

For some pollutants such as black carbon, traffic related exposures may dominate total exposure despite short exposure times since high concentrations coincide with proximity to major roads or participation in (motorized) traffic.[131] A large portion of total daily exposure occurs as short peaks of high concentrations, but it remains unclear how to define peaks and determine their frequency and health impact.[132]

In 2021, the WHO halved its recommended guideline limit for tiny particles from burning fossil fuels. The new limit for nitrogen dioxide (NO2) is 75% lower.[133] Growing evidence that air pollution—even when experienced at very low levels—hurts human health, led the WHO to revise its guideline (from 10 μg/m3 to 5 μg/m3) for what it considers a safe level of exposure of particulate pollution, bringing most of the world—97.3 percent of the global population—into the unsafe zone.[134]

Indoor air quality

[edit]
The share of total deaths from indoor air pollution, 2017
Air quality monitoring, New Delhi, India

A lack of ventilation indoors concentrates air pollution where people often spend the majority of their time. Indoor air pollution can pose a significant health risk. According to EPA reports, the concentrations of many air pollutants can be two to five times higher in indoor air than in outdoor air. Indoor air pollutants can be up to 100 times higher in some cases than they are inside. People can spend up to 90% of their time indoors, according to the American Lung Association; the US Consumer Product Safety Commission (CPSC) 2012; and the US Environmental Protection Agency 2012a.[135]

Indoor contaminants that can cause pollution include asbestos, biologic agents, building materials, radon, tobacco smoke, and wood stoves, gas ranges, or other heating systems.[135]

Radon (Rn) gas, a carcinogen, is exuded from the Earth in certain locations and trapped inside houses. Building materials including carpeting and plywood emit formaldehyde (H-CHO) gas. Paint and solvents give off volatile organic compounds (VOCs) as they dry. Lead paint can degenerate into dust and be inhaled.[136][137]

Intentional air pollution is introduced with the use of air fresheners, incense, and other scented items. Controlled wood fires in cook stoves and fireplaces can add significant amounts of harmful smoke particulates into the air, inside and out.[136][137] Indoor pollution fatalities may be caused by using pesticides and other chemical sprays indoors without proper ventilation. Also the kitchen in a modern produce harmful particles and gases, with equipment like toasters being one of the worst sources.[138]

Carbon monoxide poisoning and fatalities are often caused by faulty vents and chimneys, or by the burning of charcoal indoors or in a confined space, such as a tent.[139] Chronic carbon monoxide poisoning can result even from poorly-adjusted pilot lights. Traps are built into all domestic plumbing to keep sewer gas and hydrogen sulfide, out of interiors. Clothing emits tetrachloroethylene, or other dry cleaning fluids, for days after dry cleaning.

Though its use has now been banned in many countries, the extensive use of asbestos in industrial and domestic environments in the past has left a potentially very dangerous material in many localities. Asbestosis is a chronic inflammatory medical condition affecting the tissue of the lungs. It occurs after long-term, heavy exposure to asbestos from asbestos-containing materials in structures. Those with asbestosis have severe dyspnea (shortness of breath) and are at an increased risk regarding several different types of lung cancer. As clear explanations are not always stressed in non-technical literature, care should be taken to distinguish between several forms of relevant diseases. According to the World Health Organization,[140] these may be defined as asbestosis, lung cancer, and peritoneal mesothelioma (generally a very rare form of cancer, when more widespread it is almost always associated with prolonged exposure to asbestos).

Biological sources of air pollution are also found indoors, as gases and airborne particulates. Pets produce dander, people produce dust from minute skin flakes and decomposed hair, dust mites in bedding, carpeting and furniture produce enzymes and micrometre-sized fecal droppings, inhabitants emit methane, mold forms on walls and generates mycotoxins and spores, air conditioning systems can incubate Legionnaires' disease and mold, and houseplants, soil and surrounding gardens can produce pollen, dust, and mold. Indoors, the lack of air circulation allows these airborne pollutants to accumulate more than they would otherwise occur in nature.

Health effects

[edit]

Air pollution has both acute and chronic effects on human health, affecting a number of different systems and organs but principally affect the body's respiratory system and the cardiovascular system. Afflictions include minor to chronic upper respiratory irritation such as difficulty in breathing, wheezing, coughing, asthma[141] and heart disease, lung cancer, stroke, acute respiratory infections in children and chronic bronchitis in adults, aggravating pre-existing heart and lung disease, or asthmatic attacks.

Short and long term exposures have been linked with premature mortality and reduced life expectancy[142] and can result in increased medication use, increased doctor or emergency department visits, more hospital admissions and premature death.[130][better source needed] Diseases that develop from persistent exposure to air pollution are environmental health diseases, which develop when a health environment is not maintained.[143]

Even at levels lower than those considered safe by United States regulators, exposure to three components of air pollution, fine particulate matter, nitrogen dioxide and ozone, correlates with cardiac and respiratory illness.[144] Individual reactions to air pollutants depend on the type of pollutant a person is exposed to, the degree of exposure, and the individual's health status and genetics.[130] The most common sources of air pollution include particulates and ozone (often from burning fossil fuels),[145] nitrogen dioxide, and sulfur dioxide. Children aged less than five years who live in developing countries are the most vulnerable population to death attributable to indoor and outdoor air pollution.[146]

Under the Clean Air Act, U.S. EPA sets limits on certain air pollutants, including setting limits on how much can be in the air anywhere in the United States.[147] Mixed exposure to both carbon black and ozone could result in significantly greater health affects.[148]

Mortality

[edit]
Estimates of the death toll from air pollution vary across publications.
Deaths caused by accidents and air pollution from fossil fuel use in power plants exceed those caused by production of renewable energy.[149]
Estimated annual number of deaths attributed to air pollution in 2019. This includes three categories of air pollution: indoor household, outdoor particulate matter and ozone.

Estimates of deaths toll due to air pollution vary.[150] In 2014 the World Health Organization estimated that every year air pollution causes the premature death of 7 million people worldwide,[5] 1 in 8 deaths worldwide.[151] A study published in 2019 indicated that in 2015 the number may be closer to 8.8 million, with 5.5 million of these premature deaths due to air pollution from anthropogenic sources.[152][153] A 2022 review concluded that in 2019 air pollution was responsible for approximately 9 million premature deaths. It concluded that since 2015 little real progress against pollution has been made.[14][154] Causes of deaths include strokes, heart disease, COPD, lung cancer, and lung infections.[5] Children are particularly at risk.[155]

In 2021, the WHO reported that outdoor air pollution was estimated to cause 4.2 million premature deaths worldwide in 2019.[156]

The global mean loss of life expectancy (LLE; similar to YPLL) from air pollution in 2015 was 2.9 years, substantially more than, for example, 0.3 years from all forms of direct violence.[16] Communities with persons that live beyond 85 years have low ambient air pollution, suggesting a link between air pollution levels and longevity.[157]

Primary mechanisms

[edit]

The WHO estimates that in 2016, ~58% of outdoor air pollution-related premature deaths were due to ischaemic heart disease and stroke.[156] The mechanisms linking air pollution to increased cardiovascular mortality are uncertain, but probably include pulmonary and systemic inflammation.[158]

By region

[edit]

India and China have the highest death rate due to air pollution.[159][160] India also has more deaths from asthma than any other nation according to the World Health Organization. In 2019, 1.6 million deaths in India were caused by air pollution.[161] In 2013, air pollution was estimated to kill 500,000 people in China each year.[162] In 2012, 2.48% of China's total air pollution emissions were caused by exports due to US demand, causing an additional 27,963 deaths across 30 provinces.[163]

Annual premature European deaths caused by air pollution are estimated at 430,000[164] to 800,000.[153] An important cause of these deaths is nitrogen dioxide and other nitrogen oxides (NOx) emitted by road vehicles.[164] Across the European Union, air pollution is estimated to reduce life expectancy by almost nine months.[165] In a 2015 consultation document the UK government disclosed that nitrogen dioxide is responsible for 23,500 premature UK deaths per annum.[166] There is a positive correlation between pneumonia-related deaths and air pollution from motor vehicle emissions in England.[167]

Eliminating energy-related fossil fuel emissions in the United States would prevent 46,900–59,400 premature deaths each year and provide $537–$678 billion in benefits from avoided PM2.5-related illness and death.[168]

A study published in 2023 in Science focused on sulfur dioxide emissions by coal power plants (coal PM2.5) and concluded that "exposure to coal PM2.5 was associated with 2.1 times greater mortality risk than exposure to PM2.5 from all sources."[169] From 1999 to 2020, a total of 460,000 deaths in the US were attributed to coal PM2.5.[169]

Air pollution deaths by nation due to fossil fuels

Major causes

[edit]
A comparison of footprint-based and transboundary pollution-based relationships among G20 nations for the number of PM2.5-related premature deaths[170]

The largest cause of air pollution is fossil fuel combustion[171] – mostly the production and use of cars, electricity production, and heating.[172] There are estimated 4.5 million annual premature deaths worldwide due to pollutants released by high-emission power stations and vehicle exhausts.[173]

Diesel exhaust (DE) is a major contributor to combustion-derived particulate matter air pollution. In several human experimental studies, using a well-validated exposure chamber setup, DE has been linked to acute vascular dysfunction and increased thrombus formation.[174][175]

A study concluded that PM2.5 air pollution induced by the contemporary free trade and consumption by the 19 G20 nations causes two million premature deaths annually, suggesting that the average lifetime consumption of about ~28 people in these countries causes at least one premature death (average age ~67) while developing countries "cannot be expected" to implement or be able to implement countermeasures without external support or internationally coordinated efforts.[176][170]

Guidelines

[edit]

The US EPA has estimated that limiting ground-level ozone concentration to 65 parts per billion (ppb), would avert 1,700 to 5,100 premature deaths nationwide in 2020 compared with the 75 ppb standard. The agency projected the more protective standard would also prevent an additional 26,000 cases of aggravated asthma, and more than a million cases of missed work or school.[177][178] Following this assessment, the EPA acted to protect public health by lowering the National Ambient Air Quality Standards (NAAQS) for ground-level ozone to 70 ppb.[179]

A 2008 economic study of the health impacts and associated costs of air pollution in the Los Angeles Basin and San Joaquin Valley of Southern California shows that more than 3,800 people die prematurely (approximately 14 years earlier than normal) each year because air pollution levels violate federal standards. The number of annual premature deaths is considerably higher than the fatalities related to auto collisions in the same area, which average fewer than 2,000 per year.[180][181][182] A 2021 study found that outdoor air pollution is associated with substantially increased mortality "even at low pollution levels below the current European and North American standards and WHO guideline values" shortly before the WHO adjusted its guidelines.[183][184]

Cardiovascular disease

[edit]

According to the Global Burden of Disease Study, air pollution is responsible for 19% of all cardiovascular deaths.[185][186] There is strong evidence linking both short- and long-term exposure to air pollution with cardiovascular disease mortality and morbidity, stroke, blood pressure, and ischemic heart diseases (IHD).[186]

Air pollution is a leading risk factor for stroke, particularly in developing countries where pollutant levels are highest.[187] A systematic analysis of 17 different risk factors in 188 countries found air pollution is associated with nearly one in three strokes (29%) worldwide (33.7% of strokes in developing countries versus 10.2% in developed countries).[187][188] In women, air pollution is not associated with hemorrhagic but with ischemic stroke.[189] Air pollution was found to be associated with increased incidence and mortality from coronary stroke.[190] Associations are believed to be causal and effects may be mediated by vasoconstriction, low-grade inflammation and atherosclerosis.[191] Other mechanisms such as autonomic nervous system imbalance have also been suggested.[192][193]

Lung disease

[edit]

Research has demonstrated increased risk of developing asthma[194] and chronic obstructive pulmonary disease (COPD)[195] from increased exposure to traffic-related air pollution. Air pollution has been associated with increased hospitalization and mortality from asthma and COPD.[196][197]

COPD comprises a spectrum of clinical disorders that include emphysema, bronchiectasis, and chronic bronchitis.[198] COPD risk factors are both genetic and environmental. Elevated particle pollution contributes to the exacerbation of this disease and likely its pathogenesis.[199]

The risk of lung disease from air pollution is greatest for infants and young children, whose normal breathing is faster than that of older children and adults; the elderly; those who work outside or spend a lot of time outside; and those who have heart or lung disease comorbidities.[200]

A study conducted in 1960–1961 in the wake of the Great Smog of 1952 compared 293 London residents with 477 residents of Gloucester, Peterborough, and Norwich, three towns with low reported death rates from chronic bronchitis. All subjects were male postal truck drivers aged 40 to 59. Compared to the subjects from the outlying towns, the London subjects exhibited more severe respiratory symptoms (including cough, phlegm, and dyspnea), reduced lung function (FEV1 and peak flow rate), and increased sputum production and purulence. The differences were more pronounced for subjects aged 50 to 59. The study controlled for age and smoking habits, so concluded that air pollution was the most likely cause of the observed differences.[201] More studies have shown that air pollution exposure from traffic reduces lung function development in children[202] and lung function may be compromised by air pollution even at low concentrations.[203]

It is believed that, much like cystic fibrosis, serious health hazards become more apparent when living in a more urban environment. Studies have shown that in urban areas people experience mucus hypersecretion, lower levels of lung function, and more self-diagnosis of chronic bronchitis and emphysema.[204]

Cancer

[edit]
Dark factory clouds obscure the Clark Avenue Bridge in Cleveland, Ohio, July 1973.
Dark factory-emitted clouds obscuring the Clark Avenue Bridge in Cleveland, Ohio in July 1973

Around 300,000 lung cancer deaths were attributed globally in 2019 to exposure to fine particulate matter, PM2.5, suspended in the air.[205] PM2.5 exposure, such as from car exhausts, activates dormant mutations in lung cells, causing them to become cancerous.[206][205] Unprotected exposure to PM2.5 air pollution can be equivalent to smoking multiple cigarettes per day,[207][dead link] potentially increasing the risk of cancer, which is mainly the result of environmental factors.[208]

Long-term exposure to PM2.5 (fine particulates) increases the overall risk of non-accidental mortality by 6% per 10 μg/m3 increase. Exposure to PM2.5 is also associated with an increased risk of mortality from lung cancer (range: 15–21% per 10 μg/m3 increase) and total cardiovascular mortality (range: 12–14% per 10 μg/m3 increase).[209]

The review further noted that living close to busy traffic appears to be associated with elevated risks of these three outcomes – increase in lung cancer deaths, cardiovascular deaths, and overall non-accidental deaths. The reviewers also found suggestive evidence that exposure to PM2.5 is positively associated with mortality from coronary heart diseases and exposure to SO2 increases mortality from lung cancer, but the data was insufficient to provide solid conclusions.[209] Another investigation showed that higher activity level increases deposition fraction of aerosol particles in human lung and recommended avoiding heavy activities like running in outdoor space at polluted areas.[210]

In 2011, a large Danish epidemiological study found an increased risk of lung cancer for people who lived in areas with high nitrogen oxide concentrations.[211] Another Danish study, likewise noted evidence of possible associations between air pollution and other forms of cancer, including cervical cancer and brain cancer.[212]

Kidney disease

[edit]

A study of 163,197 Taiwanese residents over the period of 2001–2016 estimated that every 5 μg/m3 decrease (from an approximate peak of 30μg/m3) in the ambient concentration of PM2.5 was associated with a 25% reduced risk of chronic kidney disease development.[213] According to a cohort study involving 10,997 atherosclerosis patients, higher PM 2.5 exposure is associated with increased albuminuria.[214]

Fertility

[edit]

Nitrogen dioxide (NO2)

[edit]

An increase in NO2 is significantly associated with a lower live birth rate in women undergoing IVF treatment.[215] In the general population, there is a significant increase in miscarriage rate in women exposed to NO2 compared to those not exposed.[215]

Carbon monoxide (CO)

[edit]

CO exposure is significantly associated with stillbirth in the second and third trimester.[215]

Standard line-angle structure of benzo-a-pyrene (BaP)

Polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons

[edit]

Polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons (PAHs) have been associated with reduced fertility. Benzo(a)pyrene (BaP) is a well-known PAH and carcinogen which is often found in exhaust fumes and cigarette smoke.[216] PAHs have been reported to administer their toxic effects through oxidative stress by increasing the production of Reactive Oxygen Species (ROS) which can result in inflammation and cell death. More long-term exposure to PAHs can result in DNA damage and reduced repair.[217]

Exposure to BaP has been reported to reduce sperm motility and increasing the exposure worsens this effect. Research has demonstrated that more BaPs were found in men with reported fertility issues compared to men without.[218]

Studies have shown that BaPs can affect folliculogenesis and ovarian development by reducing the number of ovarian germ cells via triggering cell death pathways and inducing inflammation which can lead to ovarian damage.[219]

Particulate matter

[edit]

Particulate matter (PM) refers to the collection of solids and liquids suspended in the air. These can be harmful to humans, and more research has shown that these effects may be more extensive than first thought; particularly on male fertility. PM can be different sizes, such as PM2.5 which are tiny particles of 2.5 microns in width or smaller, compared with PM10 which are classified as 10 microns in diameter or less.

A study in California found that increased exposure to PM2.5 led to decreased sperm motility and increased abnormal morphology. Similarly, in Poland exposure to PM2.5 and PM10 led to an increase in the percentage of cells with immature chromatin (DNA that has not fully developed or has developed abnormally).[220]

In Turkey, a study examined the fertility of men who work as toll collectors and are therefore exposed to high levels of traffic pollutants daily. Traffic pollution often has high levels of PM10 alongside carbon monoxide and nitrogen oxides.[220] There were significant differences in sperm count and motility in this study group compared to a control group with limited air pollution exposure.

In women, while overall effects on fertility do not appear significant there is an association between increased exposure to PM10 and early miscarriage. Exposure to smaller particulate matter, PM2.5, appears to have an effect on conception rates in women undergoing IVF but does not affect live birth rates.[215]

Ozone structure showing three oxygen atoms

Ground-level ozone pollution

[edit]

Ground-level ozone (O3), when in high concentrations, is regarded as an air pollutant and is often found in smog in industrial areas.

There is limited research about the effect that ozone pollution has on fertility.[215] At present, there is no evidence to suggest that ozone exposure poses a deleterious effect on spontaneous fertility in either females or males. However, there have been studies which suggest that high levels of ozone pollution, often a problem in the summer months, exert an effect on in vitro fertilisation (IVF) outcomes. Within an IVF population, NOx and ozone pollutants were linked with reduced rates of live birth.[215]

While most research on this topic is focused on the direct human exposure of air pollution, other studies have analysed the impact of air pollution on gametes and embryos within IVF laboratories. Multiple studies have reported a marked improvement in embryo quality, implantation and pregnancy rates after IVF laboratories have implemented air filters in a concerted effort to reduce levels of air pollution.[221] Therefore, ozone pollution is considered to have a negative impact on the success of assisted reproductive technologies (ART) when occurring at high levels.

Ozone is thought to act in a biphasic manner where a positive effect on live birth is observed when ozone exposure is limited to before IVF embryo implantation. Conversely, a negative effect is demonstrated upon exposure to ozone after embryo implantation. However, after adjusting for NO2, the association between O3 and IVF live birth rate was no longer significant.[222][223]

In terms of male fertility, ozone is reported to cause a significant decrease in the concentration and count of sperm in semen after exposure.[224] Similarly, sperm vitality, the proportion of live spermatozoa in a sample, was demonstrated to be diminished as a result of exposure to air pollution.[223] However, findings on the effect of ozone exposure on male fertility are somewhat discordant, highlighting the need for further research.[223]

Children

[edit]

Children and infants are among the most vulnerable to air pollution. Polluted air leads to the poisoning of millions of children under the age of 15, resulting in the death of some 600,000 children annually (543,000 under 5 years of age and 52,000 aged 5-15 years).[225] Children in low or middle income countries are exposed to higher levels of fine particulate matter than those in high income countries.[225]

Health effects of air pollution on children include asthma, pneumonia and lower respiratory tract infections and low birth weight.[226] A study in Europe found that exposure to ultrafine particles can increase blood pressure in children.[227]

Prenatal exposure

[edit]

Prenatal exposure to polluted air has been linked to a variety of neurodevelopmental disorders in children. For example, exposure to polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons (PAH) was associated with reduced IQ scores and symptoms of anxiety and depression.[228] They can also lead to detrimental perinatal health outcomes that are often fatal in developing countries.[8] A 2014 study found that PAHs might play a role in the development of childhood attention deficit hyperactivity disorder (ADHD).[229]

Researchers have found a correlation between air pollution and risk of autism spectrum disorder (ASD) diagnosis, although definitive causality has not yet been established. In Los Angeles, children living in areas with high levels of traffic-related air pollution were more likely to be diagnosed with autism between three–five years of age.[230] A cohort study in Southern California linked in-utero exposure to near-roadway air pollution to an increased risk of ASD diagnosis[231] and a study in Sweden concluded that exposure to PM2.5 during pregnancy was associated with ASD.[232] A Danish study linked exposure to air pollution during infancy, but not during pregnancy, to an increased risk of ASD diagnosis.[233]

The connection between air pollution and neurodevelopmental disorders in children is thought to be related to epigenetic dysregulation of the primordial germ cells, embryo, and fetus during a critical period. Some PAHs are considered endocrine disruptors and are lipid soluble. When they build up in adipose tissue they can be transferred across the placenta can exert a genotoxic effect, cauding DNA damange and mutations.[234] Air pollution has been associated with the prevalence of preterm births.[235]

Infants

[edit]

Ambient levels of air pollution have been associated with preterm birth and low birth weight. A 2014 WHO worldwide survey on maternal and perinatal health found a statistically significant association between low birth weights (LBW) and increased levels of exposure to PM2.5. Women in regions with greater than average PM2.5 levels had statistically significant higher odds of pregnancy resulting in a low-birth weight infant even when adjusted for country-related variables.[236] The effect is thought to be from stimulating inflammation and increasing oxidative stress.

A study found that in 2010 exposure to PM2.5 was strongly associated with 18% of preterm births globally, which was approximately 2.7 million premature births. The countries with the highest air pollution associated preterm births were in South and East Asia, the Middle East, North Africa, and West sub-Saharan Africa.[237] In 2019, ambient particulate matter pollution in Africa resulted in at least 383,000 early deaths, according to new estimates of the cost of air pollution in the continent. This increased from 3.6% in 1990 to around 7.4% of all premature deaths in the area.[238][239][240]

The source of PM2.5 differs greatly by region. In South and East Asia, pregnant women are frequently exposed to indoor air pollution because of wood and other biomass fuels being used for cooking, which are responsible for more than 80% of regional pollution. In the Middle East, North Africa and West sub-Saharan Africa, fine PM comes from natural sources, such as dust storms.[237] The United States had an estimated 50,000 preterm births associated with exposure to PM2.5 in 2010.[237]

A study between 1988 and 1991 found a correlation between sulfur dioxide (SO2) and total suspended particulates (TSP) and preterm births and low birth weights in Beijing. A group of 74,671 pregnant women, in four separate regions of Beijing, were monitored from early pregnancy to delivery along with daily air pollution levels of SO2 and TSP (along with other particulates). The estimated reduction in birth weight was 7.3 g for every 100 μg/m3 increase in SO2 and 6.9 g for each 100 μg/m3 increase in TSP. These associations were statistically significant in both summer and winter, although summer was greater. The proportion of low birth weight attributable to air pollution, was 13%. This is the largest attributable risk ever reported for the known risk factors of low birth weight.[241] Coal stoves, which are in 97% of homes, are a major source of air pollution in this area.

Brauer et al. studied the relationship between air pollution and proximity to a highway with pregnancy outcomes in a Vancouver cohort of pregnant women using addresses to estimate exposure during pregnancy. Exposure to NO, NO2, CO, PM10 and PM2.5 were associated with infants born small for gestational age (SGA). Women living less than 50 meters away from an expressway or highway were 26% more likely to give birth to a SGA infant.[242]

Central nervous system

[edit]

Data is accumulating that air pollution exposure also affects the central nervous system.[243]

Air pollution increases the risk of dementia in people over 50 years old.[244] Indoor air pollution exposure during childhood may negatively affect cognitive function and neurodevelopment.[245][246] Prenatal exposure may also affect neurodevelopment.[247][248] Studies show that air pollution is associated with a variety of developmental disabilities, oxidative stress, and neuro-inflammation and that it may contribute to Alzheimer's disease and Parkinson's disease.[246]

Researchers found that early exposure to air pollution causes the same changes in the brain as autism and schizophrenia in mice. It also showed that air pollution also affected short-term memory, learning ability, and impulsivity. In this study, air pollution had a larger negative impact on male mice than on females.[249][250] Lead researcher on the study, Deborah Cory-Slechta, said that:[251]

When we looked closely at the ventricles, we could see that the white matter that normally surrounds them hadn't fully developed. It appears that inflammation had damaged those brain cells and prevented that region of the brain from developing, and the ventricles simply expanded to fill the space. Our findings add to the growing body of evidence that air pollution may play a role in autism, as well as in other neurodevelopmental disorders.

Exposure to fine particulate matter can increase levels of cytokines - neurotransmitters produced in response to infection and inflammation that are also associated with depression and suicide. Pollution has been associated with inflammation of the brain, which may disrupt mood regulation. Heightened PM2.5 levels are linked to more self-reported depressive symptoms, and increases in daily suicide rates.[252][253]

In 2015, experimental studies reported the detection of significant episodic (situational) cognitive impairment from impurities in indoor air breathed by test subjects who were not informed about changes in the air quality. Significant deficits were observed in the performance scores achieved in increasing concentrations of either volatile organic compounds (VOCs) or carbon dioxide, while keeping other factors constant. The highest impurity levels reached are not uncommon in some classroom or office environments.[254][255] Higher PM2.5 and CO2 concentrations were shown to be associated with slower response times and reduced accuracy in tests.[256]

PM2.5 Levels Across the World's 5 Most Populated Nations in 2019

"Clean" areas

[edit]
Share of the population exposed to air pollution levels above WHO guidelines, 2017

Even in areas with relatively low levels of air pollution, public health effects can be significant and costly, since a large number of people breathe in such pollutants. A study found that even in areas of the U.S. where ozone and PM2.5 meet federal standards, Medicare recipients who are exposed to more air pollution have higher mortality rates.[257]

Rural populations in India, like those in urban areas, are also exposed to high levels of air pollution.[258] In 2020, scientists found that the boundary layer air over the Southern Ocean around Antarctica is 'unpolluted' by humans.[259]

Agricultural effects

[edit]

Various studies have estimated the impacts of air pollution on agriculture, especially ozone. A 2020 study showed that ozone pollution in California may reduce yields of certain perennial crops such as table grapes by as much as 22% per year, translating into economic damages of more than $1 billion per year.[260] After air pollutants enter the agricultural environment, they not only directly affect agricultural production and quality, but also enter agricultural waters and soil.[261] The COVID-19 induced lockdown served as a natural experiment to expose the close links between air quality and surface greenness. In India, the lockdown induced improvement in air quality, enhanced surface greenness and photosynthetic activity, with the positive response of vegetation to reduce air pollution was dominant in croplands.[262] On the other hand, agriculture in its traditional form is one of the primary contributors to the emission of trace gases like atmospheric ammonia.[263]

Economic effects

[edit]

Air pollution costs the world economy $5 trillion per year as a result of productivity losses and degraded quality of life.[24][25][26] These productivity losses are caused by deaths due to diseases caused by air pollution. One out of ten deaths in 2013 was caused by diseases associated with air pollution and the problem is getting worse.

A small improvement in air quality (1% reduction of ambient PM2.5 and ozone concentrations) would produce $29 million in annual savings in the lower Fraser Valley region in 2010.[264] This finding is based on health valuation of lethal (death) and sub-lethal (illness) affects.

The problem is even more acute in the developing world. "Children under age 5 in lower-income countries are more than 60 times as likely to die from exposure to air pollution as children in high-income countries."[24][25] The report states that additional economic losses caused by air pollution, including health costs[265] and the adverse effect on agricultural and other productivity were not calculated in the report, and thus the actual costs to the world economy are far higher than $5 trillion.

A study published in 2022 found "a strong and significant connection between air pollution and construction site accidents" and that "a 10-ppb increase in NO2 levels increases the likelihood of an accident by as much as 25%".[266]

Other effects

[edit]

Artificial air pollution may be detectable on Earth from distant vantage points such as other planetary systems via atmospheric SETI – including NO2 pollution levels and with telescopic technology close to today. It may also be possible to detect extraterrestrial civilizations this way.[267][268][269]

Historical disasters

[edit]

The world's worst short-term civilian pollution crisis was the 1984 Bhopal Disaster in India.[270] Leaked industrial vapours from the Union Carbide factory, belonging to Union Carbide, Inc., U.S.A. (later bought by Dow Chemical Company), killed at least 3787 people and injured from 150,000 to 600,000. The United Kingdom suffered its worst air pollution event when the 4 December Great Smog of 1952 formed over London. In six days more than 4,000 died and more recent estimates put the figure at nearer 12,000.[271]

An accidental leak of anthrax spores from a biological warfare laboratory in the former USSR in 1979 near Yekaterinburg (formerly Sverdlovsk) is believed to have caused at least 64 deaths.[272] The worst single incident of air pollution to occur in the US occurred in Donora, Pennsylvania, in late October 1948, when 20 people died and over 7,000 were injured.[273]

Reduction and regulation

[edit]

Global depletion of the surrounding air pollution will require valiant leadership, a surplus of combined resources from the international community, and extensive societal changes.[274] Pollution prevention seeks to prevent pollution such as air pollution and could include adjustments to industrial and business activities such as designing sustainable manufacturing processes (and the products' designs)[275] and related legal regulations as well as efforts towards renewable energy transitions.[276][277]

Efforts to reduce particulate matter in the air may result in better health.[278]

The 9-Euro-Ticket scheme in Germany which allowed people to buy a monthly pass allowing use on all local and regional transport (trains, trams and busses) for 9 euro (€) for one month of unlimited travel saved 1.8 million tons of CO2 emissions during its three-month implementation from June to August 2022.[279]

Pollution control

[edit]
Burning of items polluting Jamestown environment in Accra, Ghana

Various pollution control technologies and strategies are available to reduce air pollution.[280][281] At its most basic level, land-use planning is likely to involve zoning and transport infrastructure planning. In most developed countries, land-use planning is an important part of social policy, ensuring that land is used efficiently for the benefit of the wider economy and population, as well as to protect the environment.[282] Stringent environmental regulations, effective control technologies and shift towards the renewable source of energy also helping countries like China and India to reduce their sulfur dioxide pollution.[283]

Titanium dioxide has been researched for its ability to reduce air pollution. Ultraviolet light will release free electrons from material, thereby creating free radicals, which break up VOCs and

NOx gases. One form is superhydrophilic.[284]

Pollution-eating nanoparticles placed near a busy road were shown to absorb toxic emission from around 20 cars each day.[285]

Energy transition

[edit]

Since a large share of air pollution is caused by combustion of fossil fuels such as coal and oil, the reduction of these fuels can reduce air pollution drastically. Most effective is the switch to clean power sources such as wind power, solar power, hydro power which do not cause air pollution.[286] Efforts to reduce pollution from mobile sources includes expanding regulation to new sources (such as cruise and transport ships, farm equipment, and small gas-powered equipment such as string trimmers, chainsaws, and snowmobiles), increased fuel efficiency (such as through the use of hybrid vehicles), conversion to cleaner fuels, and conversion to electric vehicles. For example, buses in New Delhi, India, have run on compressed natural gas since 2000, to help eliminate the city's "pea-soup" smog.[226][287]

A very effective means to reduce air pollution is the transition to renewable energy. According to a study published in Energy and Environmental Science in 2015 the switch to 100% renewable energy in the United States would eliminate about 62,000 premature mortalities per year and about 42,000 in 2050, if no biomass were used. This would save about $600 billion in health costs a year due to reduced air pollution in 2050, or about 3.6% of the 2014 U.S. gross domestic product.[286] Air quality improvement is a near-term benefit among the many societal benefits from climate change mitigation.

Alternatives to pollution

[edit]
Support for a ban on high-emission vehicles in city centres in Europe, China and the US from respondents to the European Investment Bank Climate Survey
Support, use and infrastructure-expansion of forms of public transport that do not cause air pollution may be a critical key alternative to pollution.

There are now practical alternatives to the principal causes of air pollution:

  • Strategic substitution of air pollution sources in transport with lower-emission or, during the lifecycle, emission-free forms of public transport[288][289] and bicycle use and infrastructure (as well as with remote work, reductions of work, relocations, and localizations)
    • Phase-out of fossil fuel vehicles is a critical component of a shift to sustainable transport; however, similar infrastructure and design decisions like electric vehicles may be associated with similar pollution for production as well as mining and resource exploitation for large numbers of needed batteries as well as the energy for their recharging[290][291]
  • Areas downwind (over 20 miles) of major airports have more than double total particulate emissions in air than other areas, even when factoring in areas with frequent ship calls, and heavy freeway and city traffic like Los Angeles.[292] Aviation biofuel mixed in with jetfuel at a 50/50 ratio can reduce jet derived cruise altitude particulate emissions by 50–70%, according to a NASA led 2017 study (however, this should imply ground level benefits to urban air pollution as well).[293]
  • Ship propulsion and idling can be switched to much cleaner fuels like natural gas. (Ideally a renewable source but not practical yet)
  • Combustion of fossil fuels for space heating can be replaced by using ground source heat pumps and seasonal thermal energy storage.[294]
  • Electricity generated from the combustion of fossil fuels can be replaced by nuclear and renewable energy. Heating and home stoves, which contribute significantly to regional air pollution, can be replaced with a much cleaner fossil fuel, such as natural gas, or, preferably, renewables, in poor countries.[295][296]
  • Motor vehicles driven by fossil fuels, a key factor in urban air pollution, can be replaced by electric vehicles. Though lithium supply and cost is a limitation, there are alternatives. Herding more people into clean public transit such as electric trains can also help. Nevertheless, even in emission-free electric vehicles, rubber tires produce significant amounts of air pollution themselves, ranking as 13th worst pollutant in Los Angeles.[297]
  • Reducing travel in vehicles can curb pollution. After Stockholm reduced vehicle traffic in the central city with a congestion tax, nitrogen dioxide and PM10 pollution declined, as did acute pediatric asthma attacks.[298]
  • Biodigesters can be utilized in poor nations where slash and burn is prevalent, turning a useless commodity into a source of income. The plants can be gathered and sold to a central authority that will break them down in a large modern biodigester, producing much needed energy to use.[299]
  • Induced humidity and ventilation both can greatly dampen air pollution in enclosed spaces, which was found to be relatively high inside subway lines due to braking and friction and relatively less ironically inside transit buses than lower sitting passenger automobiles or subways.[300]

Control devices

[edit]
Tarps and netting are often used to reduce the amount of dust released from construction sites.
Air pollution from a car

The following items are commonly used as pollution control devices in industry and transportation. They can either destroy contaminants or remove them from an exhaust stream before it is emitted into the atmosphere.

  • Particulate control
    • Mechanical collectors (dust cyclones, multicyclones)
    • Electrostatic precipitators: An electrostatic precipitator (ESP), or electrostatic air cleaner, is a particulate collection device that removes particles from a flowing gas (such as air), using the force of an induced electrostatic charge. Electrostatic precipitators are highly efficient filtration devices that minimally impede the flow of gases through the device, and can easily remove fine particulates such as dust and smoke from the air stream.
    • Baghouses: Designed to handle heavy dust loads, a dust collector consists of a blower, dust filter, a filter-cleaning system, and a dust receptacle or dust removal system (distinguished from air cleaners which utilize disposable filters to remove the dust).
    • Particulate scrubbers: A wet scrubber is a form of pollution control technology. The term describes a variety of devices that use pollutants from a furnace flue gas or from other gas streams. In a wet scrubber, the polluted gas stream is brought into contact with the scrubbing liquid, by spraying it with the liquid, by forcing it through a pool of liquid, or by some other contact method, so as to remove the pollutants.
  • Scrubbers
    • Baffle spray scrubber
    • Cyclonic spray scrubber
    • Ejector venturi scrubber
    • Mechanically aided scrubber
    • Spray tower
    • Wet scrubber
  • NOx control
    • LO-NOx burners
    • Selective catalytic reduction (SCR)
    • Selective non-catalytic reduction (SNCR)
    • NOx scrubbers
    • Exhaust gas recirculation
    • Catalytic converter (also for VOC control)
  • VOC abatement
    • Adsorption systems, using activated carbon, such as Fluidized Bed Concentrator
    • Flares
    • Thermal oxidizers
    • Catalytic converters
    • Biofilters
    • Absorption (scrubbing)
    • Cryogenic condensers
    • Vapor recovery systems
  • Acid gas/SO2 control
    • Wet scrubbers
    • Dry scrubbers
    • Flue-gas desulfurization
  • Mercury control
    • Sorbent injection technology
    • Electro-catalytic oxidation (ECO)
    • K-Fuel
  • Dioxin and furan control
  • Miscellaneous associated equipment
    • Source capturing systems
    • Continuous emissions monitoring systems (CEMS)

Monitoring

[edit]

Spatiotemporal monitoring of air quality may be necessary for improving air quality, and thereby the health and safety of the public, and assessing impacts of interventions.[301] Such monitoring is done to different extents with different regulatory requirements with discrepant regional coverage by a variety of organizations and governance entities such as using a variety of technologies for use of the data and sensing such mobile IoT sensors,[302][303] satellites,[304][305][306] and monitoring stations.[307][308] Some websites attempt to map air pollution levels using available data.[309][310][311]

Air quality modeling

[edit]

Numerical models either on a global scale using tools such as GCMs (general circulation models coupled with a pollution module) or CTMs (Chemical transport model) can be used to simulate the levels of different pollutants in the atmosphere. These tools can have several types (Atmospheric model) and different uses. These models can be used in forecast mode which can help policy makers to decide on appropriate actions when an air pollution episode is detected. They can also be used for climate modeling including evolution of air quality in the future, for example the IPCC (Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change) provides climate simulations including air quality assessments in their reports (latest report accessible through their site).

Regulations

[edit]
Smog in Cairo

In general, there are two types of air quality standards. The first class of standards (such as the U.S. National Ambient Air Quality Standards and E.U. Air Quality Directive[312]) set maximum atmospheric concentrations for specific pollutants. Environmental agencies enact regulations which are intended to result in attainment of these target levels. The second class (such as the North American air quality index) take the form of a scale with various thresholds, which is used to communicate to the public the relative risk of outdoor activity. The scale may or may not distinguish between different pollutants.

Canada

[edit]

In Canada, air pollution and associated health risks are measured with the Air Quality Health Index (AQHI).[313] It is a health protection tool used to make decisions to reduce short-term exposure to air pollution by adjusting activity levels during increased levels of air pollution.

The AQHI is a federal program jointly coordinated by Health Canada and Environment Canada. However, the AQHI program would not be possible without the commitment and support of the provinces, municipalities and NGOs. From air quality monitoring to health risk communication and community engagement, local partners are responsible for the vast majority of work related to AQHI implementation. The AQHI provides a number from 1 to 10+ to indicate the level of health risk associated with local air quality. Occasionally, when the amount of air pollution is abnormally high, the number may exceed 10. The AQHI provides a local air quality current value as well as a local air quality maximums forecast for today, tonight and tomorrow and provides associated health advice.

1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 +
Risk: Low (1–3) Moderate (4–6) High (7–10) Very high (above 10)

As it is now known that even low levels of air pollution can trigger discomfort for the sensitive population, the index has been developed as a continuum: The higher the number, the greater the health risk and need to take precautions. The index describes the level of health risk associated with this number as 'low', 'moderate', 'high' or 'very high', and suggests steps that can be taken to reduce exposure.[314]

Health risk Air Quality Health Index Health messages[315]
At risk population General population
Low 1–3 Enjoy your usual outdoor activities. Ideal air quality for outdoor activities
Moderate 4–6 Consider reducing or rescheduling strenuous activities outdoors if you are experiencing symptoms. No need to modify your usual outdoor activities unless you experience symptoms such as coughing and throat irritation.
High 7–10 Reduce or reschedule strenuous activities outdoors. Children and the elderly should also take it easy. Consider reducing or rescheduling strenuous activities outdoors if you experience symptoms such as coughing and throat irritation.
Very high Above 10 Avoid strenuous activities outdoors. Children and the elderly should also avoid outdoor physical exertion and should stay indoors. Reduce or reschedule strenuous activities outdoors, especially if you experience symptoms such as coughing and throat irritation.

The measurement is based on the observed relationship of nitrogen dioxide (NO2), ground-level ozone (O3) and particulates (PM2.5) with mortality, from an analysis of several Canadian cities. Significantly, all three of these pollutants can pose health risks, even at low levels of exposure, especially among those with pre-existing health problems.

When developing the AQHI, Health Canada's original analysis of health effects included five major air pollutants: particulates, ozone, and nitrogen dioxide (NO2), as well as sulfur dioxide (SO2), and carbon monoxide (CO). The latter two pollutants provided little information in predicting health effects and were removed from the AQHI formulation.

The AQHI does not measure the effects of odour, pollen, dust, heat or humidity.

Germany

[edit]

TA Luft is the German air quality regulation.[316]

Governing urban air pollution

[edit]

In Europe, Council Directive 96/62/EC on ambient air quality assessment and management provides a common strategy against which member states can "set objectives for ambient air quality in order to avoid, prevent or reduce harmful effects on human health and the environment ... and improve air quality where it is unsatisfactory".[317]

In July 2008, in the case Dieter Janecek v. Freistaat Bayern, the European Court of Justice ruled that under this directive[317] citizens have the right to require national authorities to implement a short term action plan that aims to maintain or achieve compliance to air quality limit values.[318][319]

This important case law appears to confirm the role of the EC as centralised regulator to European nation-states as regards air pollution control. It places a supranational legal obligation on the UK to protect its citizens from dangerous levels of air pollution, furthermore superseding national interests with those of the citizen.

In 2010, the European Commission (EC) threatened the UK with legal action against the successive breaching of PM10 limit values.[320] The UK government has identified that if fines are imposed, they could cost the nation upwards of £300 million per year.[321]

In March 2011, the Greater London Built-up Area remained the only UK region in breach of the EC's limit values, and was given three months to implement an emergency action plan aimed at meeting the EU Air Quality Directive.[322] The City of London has dangerous levels of PM10 concentrations, estimated to cause 3000 deaths per year within the city.[323] As well as the threat of EU fines, in 2010 it was threatened with legal action for scrapping the western congestion charge zone, which is claimed to have led to an increase in air pollution levels.[324]

In response to these charges, mayor of London Boris Johnson has criticised the current need for European cities to communicate with Europe through their nation state's central government, arguing that in future "A great city like London" should be permitted to bypass its government and deal directly with the European Commission regarding its air quality action plan.[322]

This can be interpreted as recognition that cities can transcend the traditional national government organisational hierarchy and develop solutions to air pollution using global governance networks, for example through transnational relations. Transnational relations include but are not exclusive to national governments and intergovernmental organisations,[325] allowing sub-national actors including cities and regions to partake in air pollution control as independent actors.

Global city partnerships can be built into networks, for example the C40 Cities Climate Leadership Group, of which London is a member. The C40 is a public 'non-state' network of the world's leading cities that aims to curb their greenhouse emissions.[326] The C40 has been identified as 'governance from the middle' and is an alternative to intergovernmental policy.[327] It has the potential to improve urban air quality as participating cities "exchange information, learn from best practices and consequently mitigate carbon dioxide emissions independently from national government decisions".[326] A criticism of the C40 network is that its exclusive nature limits influence to participating cities and risks drawing resources away from less powerful city and regional actors.

Indigenous people

[edit]

Because Indigenous people[328] frequently experience a disproportionate share of the effects of environmental degradation and climate change, even while they have made very little contribution to the processes causing these changes, environmental justice is especially important to them. Indigenous peoples have been marginalized and their lands and resources have been exploited as a result of historical and continuing colonization, institutional injustices, and inequality.

Indigenous groups frequently lack the political and financial clout to influence policy decisions that impact their lands and means of subsistence or to lessen the effects of climate change. This makes the already-existing inequalities in these communities' social, economic, and health conditions worse. Furthermore, traditional ecological knowledge and Indigenous knowledge systems provide insightful information about sustainable resource management and climate change adaptation techniques. To promote persistence and environmental justice, Indigenous viewpoints must be acknowledged and integrated into efforts to mitigate the effects of climate change and adapt to them.

Combating climate change necessitates an all-encompassing strategy that recognizes the interdependence of social, economic, and environmental elements. This entails defending treaty rights, advancing Indigenous sovereignty and self-determination, and aiding Indigenous-led projects for sustainable development and environmental preservation.

Hotspots

[edit]

Air pollution hotspots are areas where air pollution emissions expose individuals to increased negative health effects.[329] They are particularly common in highly populated, urban areas, where there may be a combination of stationary sources (e.g. industrial facilities) and mobile sources (e.g. cars and trucks) of pollution. Emissions from these sources can cause respiratory disease, childhood asthma,[141] cancer, and other health problems. Fine particulate matter such as diesel soot, which contributes to more than 3.2 million premature deaths around the world each year, is a significant problem. It is very small and can lodge itself within the lungs and enter the bloodstream. Diesel soot is concentrated in densely populated areas, and one in six people in the U.S. live near a diesel pollution hot spot.[330]

External videos
video icon AirVisual Earth – realtime map of global wind and air pollution[331]

While air pollution hotspots affect a variety of populations, some groups are more likely to be located in hotspots. Previous studies have shown disparities in exposure to pollution by race and/or income. Hazardous land uses (toxic storage and disposal facilities, manufacturing facilities, major roadways) tend to be located where property values and income levels are low. Low socioeconomic status can be a proxy for other kinds of social vulnerability, including race, a lack of ability to influence regulation and a lack of ability to move to neighborhoods with less environmental pollution. These communities bear a disproportionate burden of environmental pollution and are more likely to face health risks such as cancer or asthma.[332]

Studies show that patterns in race and income disparities not only indicate a higher exposure to pollution but also higher risk of adverse health outcomes.[333] Communities characterized by low socioeconomic status and racial minorities can be more vulnerable to cumulative adverse health impacts resulting from elevated exposure to pollutants than more privileged communities.[333] Blacks and Latinos generally face more pollution than Whites and Asians, and low-income communities bear a higher burden of risk than affluent ones.[332] Racial discrepancies are particularly distinct in suburban areas of the Southern United States and metropolitan areas of the Midwestern and Western United States.[334] Residents in public housing, who are generally low-income and cannot move to healthier neighborhoods, are highly affected by nearby refineries and chemical plants.[335]

Cities

[edit]
Nitrogen dioxide concentrations as measured from satellite 2002–2004

Air pollution is usually concentrated in densely populated metropolitan areas, especially in developing countries where cities are experiencing rapid growth and environmental regulations are relatively lax or nonexistent. Urbanization leads to a rapid rise in premature mortality due to anthropogenic air pollution in fast-growing tropical cities.[336] However, even populated areas in developed countries attain unhealthy levels of pollution, with Los Angeles and Rome being two examples.[337] Between 2002 and 2011 the incidence of lung cancer in Beijing near doubled. While smoking remains the leading cause of lung cancer in China, the number of smokers is falling while lung cancer rates are rising .[338]

[339]
World's Most Polluted Cities 2020 2020 Average 2019 Average
Hotan, China 110.2 110.1
Ghaziabad, India 106.6 110.2
Bulandshahr, India 98.4 89.4
Bisrakh Jalalpur, India 96.0 -
Bhiwadi, India 95.5 83.4

Tehran was declared the most polluted city in the world on May 24, 2022.[340]

Projections

[edit]

In a 2019 projection, by 2030 half of the world's pollution emissions could be generated by Africa.[341] Potential contributors to such an outcome include increased burning activities (such as the burning of open waste), traffic, agri-food and chemical industries, sand dust from the Sahara, and overall population growth.

In a 2012 study, by 2050 outdoor air pollution (particulate matter and ground-level ozone) is projected to become the top cause of environmentally related deaths worldwide.[342]

See also

[edit]

Source

  • Beehive burner
  • Bottom ash
  • Concrete#Concrete – health and safety
  • Diwali-related air pollution
  • Flue-gas emissions from fossil-fuel combustion
  • Health impacts of sawdust
  • Joss paper
  • Metal working
  • Mining
  • Non-exhaust emissions
  • Power tool
  • Rubber pollution
  • Slag
  • Smelting
  • Tire fire
  • Welding
  • Wood ash

Measurement

  • Air pollutant concentrations
  • Air pollution measurement
  • Organic molecular tracers
  • Intake fraction
  • Particulate matter sampler

Others

  • Air stagnation
  • ASEAN Agreement on Transboundary Haze Pollution
  • Asian brown cloud
  • Atmospheric chemistry
  • BenMAP
  • Best Available Control Technology
  • Critical load
  • Emission standard
  • Emissions & Generation Resource Integrated Database
  • Environmental agreement
  • Environmental racism
  • Exposome
  • Global Atmosphere Watch
  • Global dimming
  • Great Smog of London
  • Haze
  • Health Effects Institute (HEI)
  • Indicator value
  • International Agency for Research on Cancer
  • International Day of Clean Air for Blue Skies
  • Kyoto Protocol
  • Light water reactor sustainability
  • List of smogs by death toll
  • Lowest Achievable Emissions Rate
  • NASA Clean Air Study
  • NIEHS
  • Phytoremediation
  • Polluter pays principle
  • Regulation of greenhouse gases under the Clean Air Act
  • Silicosis#Prevention

References

[edit]
  1. ^ a b c "Air pollution". www.who.int. Retrieved 14 January 2023.
  2. ^ a b Manisalidis I, Stavropoulou E, Stavropoulos A, Bezirtzoglou E (2020). "Environmental and Health Impacts of Air Pollution: A Review". Frontiers in Public Health. 8: 14. doi:10.3389/fpubh.2020.00014. ISSN 2296-2565. PMC 7044178. PMID 32154200.
  3. ^ Howell R, Pickerill J (2016). "The Environment and Environmentalism". In Daniels P, Bradshaw M, Shaw D, Sidaway J, Hall T (eds.). An Introduction To Human Geography (5th ed.). Pearson. p. 134. ISBN 978-1-292-12939-6.
  4. ^ Dimitriou A, Christidou V (26 September 2011), Khallaf M (ed.), "Causes and Consequences of Air Pollution and Environmental Injustice as Critical Issues for Science and Environmental Education", The Impact of Air Pollution on Health, Economy, Environment and Agricultural Sources, InTech, doi:10.5772/17654, ISBN 978-953-307-528-0, retrieved 31 May 2022
  5. ^ a b c d e f "7 million premature deaths annually linked to air pollution". WHO. 25 March 2014. Retrieved 25 March 2014.
  6. ^ Allen JL, Klocke C, Morris-Schaffer K, Conrad K, Sobolewski M, Cory-Slechta DA (June 2017). "Cognitive Effects of Air Pollution Exposures and Potential Mechanistic Underpinnings". Current Environmental Health Reports. 4 (2): 180–191. Bibcode:2017CEHR....4..180A. doi:10.1007/s40572-017-0134-3. ISSN 2196-5412. PMC 5499513. PMID 28435996.
  7. ^ Newbury JB, Stewart R, Fisher HL, Beevers S, Dajnak D, Broadbent M, et al. (2021). "Association between air pollution exposure and mental health service use among individuals with first presentations of psychotic and mood disorders: retrospective cohort study". The British Journal of Psychiatry. 219 (6) (published 19 August 2021): 678–685. doi:10.1192/bjp.2021.119. ISSN 0007-1250. PMC 8636613. PMID 35048872.
  8. ^ a b Ghosh R, Causey K, Burkart K, Wozniak S, Cohen A, Brauer M (28 September 2021). "Ambient and household PM2.5 pollution and adverse perinatal outcomes: A meta-regression and analysis of attributable global burden for 204 countries and territories". PLOS Medicine. 18 (9): e1003718. doi:10.1371/journal.pmed.1003718. ISSN 1549-1676. PMC 8478226. PMID 34582444.
  9. ^ Dominski FH, Lorenzetti Branco JH, Buonanno G, Stabile L, Gameiro da Silva M, Andrade A (October 2021). "Effects of air pollution on health: A mapping review of systematic reviews and meta-analyses". Environmental Research. 201: 111487. Bibcode:2021ER....20111487D. doi:10.1016/j.envres.2021.111487. ISSN 0013-9351. PMID 34116013.
  10. ^ Lee KK, Bing R, Kiang J, Bashir S, Spath N, Stelzle D, et al. (November 2020). "Adverse health effects associated with household air pollution: a systematic review, meta-analysis, and burden estimation study". The Lancet Global Health. 8 (11): e1427–e1434. doi:10.1016/S2214-109X(20)30343-0. ISSN 2214-109X. PMC 7564377. PMID 33069303.
  11. ^ Stanek LW, Brown JS, Stanek J, Gift J, Costa DL (2011). "Air Pollution Toxicology—A Brief Review of the Role of the Science in Shaping the Current Understanding of Air Pollution Health Risks". Toxicological Sciences. 120: S8–S27. doi:10.1093/toxsci/kfq367. PMID 21147959. Retrieved 7 November 2022.
  12. ^ Majumder N, Kodali V, Velayutham M, Goldsmith T, Amedro J, Khramtsov VV, et al. (2022). "Aerosol physicochemical determinants of carbon black and ozone inhalation co-exposure induced pulmonary toxicity". Toxicological Sciences. 191 (1): 61–78. doi:10.1093/toxsci/kfac113. PMC 9887725. PMID 36303316.
  13. ^ Daniel A. Vallero (2014). Fundamentals of Air Pollution. Academic Press. pp. 43, 122, 215. ISBN 978-0-12-404602-3.
  14. ^ a b c d Fuller R, Landrigan PJ, Balakrishnan K, Bathan G, Bose-O'Reilly S, Brauer M, et al. (June 2022). "Pollution and health: a progress update". The Lancet Planetary Health. 6 (6): e535–e547. doi:10.1016/S2542-5196(22)00090-0. PMID 35594895. S2CID 248905224.
  15. ^ Juginović A, Vuković M, Aranza I, Biloš V (18 November 2021). "Health impacts of air pollution exposure from 1990 to 2019 in 43 European countries". Scientific Reports. 11 (1): 22516. Bibcode:2021NatSR..1122516J. doi:10.1038/s41598-021-01802-5. eISSN 2045-2322. PMC 8602675. PMID 34795349.
  16. ^ a b Lelieveld J, Pozzer A, Pöschl U, Fnais M, Haines A, Münzel T (1 September 2020). "Loss of life expectancy from air pollution compared to other risk factors: a worldwide perspective". Cardiovascular Research. 116 (11): 1910–1917. doi:10.1093/cvr/cvaa025. ISSN 0008-6363. PMC 7449554. PMID 32123898.
  17. ^ "Energy and Air Pollution" (PDF). Iea.org. Archived from the original (PDF) on 11 October 2019. Retrieved 12 March 2019.
  18. ^ "Study Links 6.5 Million Deaths Each Year to Air Pollution". The New York Times. 26 June 2016. Retrieved 27 June 2016.
  19. ^ Lelieveld J, Klingmüller K, Pozzer A, Burnett RT, Haines A, Ramanathan V (25 March 2019). "Effects of fossil fuel and total anthropogenic emission removal on public health and climate". Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences of the United States of America. 116 (15): 7192–7197. Bibcode:2019PNAS..116.7192L. doi:10.1073/pnas.1819989116. PMC 6462052. PMID 30910976. S2CID 85515425.
  20. ^ Silva RA, West JJ, Zhang Y, Anenberg SC, Lamarque JF, Shindell DT, et al. (2013). "Global premature mortality due to anthropogenic outdoor air pollution and the contribution of past climate change". Environmental Research Letters. 8 (3): 034005. Bibcode:2013ERL.....8c4005S. doi:10.1088/1748-9326/8/3/034005.
  21. ^ a b "9 out of 10 people worldwide breathe polluted air, but more countries are taking action". World Health Organization. 2 May 2018. Retrieved 18 May 2021.
  22. ^ "Cheap air pollution monitors help plot your walk". European Investment Bank. Retrieved 18 May 2021.
  23. ^ "Assessing the risks to health from air pollution". www.eea.europa.eu. European Environment Agency. Retrieved 18 May 2021.
  24. ^ a b c World Bank, Institute for Health Metrics and Evaluation at University of Washington – Seattle (2016). The Cost of Air Pollution: Strengthening the Economic Case for Action (PDF). Washington, D.C.: The World Bank. xii.
  25. ^ a b c McCauley L (8 September 2016). "Making Case for Clean Air, World Bank Says Pollution Cost Global Economy $5 Trillion". Common Dreams. Retrieved 3 February 2018.
  26. ^ a b "The Rising Cost of Smog". Fortune: 15. 1 February 2018. ISSN 0015-8259.
  27. ^ Batool R, Zaman K, Khurshid MA, Sheikh SM, Aamir A, Shoukry AM, et al. (October 2019). "Economics of death and dying: a critical evaluation of environmental damages and healthcare reforms across the globe". Environmental Science and Pollution Research International. 26 (29): 29799–29809. Bibcode:2019ESPR...2629799B. doi:10.1007/s11356-019-06159-x. ISSN 1614-7499. PMID 31407261. S2CID 199528114.
  28. ^ Bherwani H, Nair M, Musugu K, Gautam S, Gupta A, Kapley A, et al. (10 June 2020). "Valuation of air pollution externalities: comparative assessment of economic damage and emission reduction under COVID-19 lockdown". Air Quality, Atmosphere & Health. 13 (6): 683–694. Bibcode:2020AQAH...13..683B. doi:10.1007/s11869-020-00845-3. ISSN 1873-9318. PMC 7286556. PMID 32837611.
  29. ^ Boubel R, Vallero D, Fox D, Turner B, Stern A (2013). Fundamentals of Air Pollution (Third ed.). Elsevier. pp. 447–522. ISBN 9780080507071. Retrieved 10 April 2024.
  30. ^ Regulating Air Quality: The First Global Assessment of Air Pollution Legislation. Nairobi, Kenya: United Nations Environment Programme. 2021. ISBN 978-92-807-3872-8. Retrieved 10 April 2024.
  31. ^ Brimblecombe P (2006). "The clean air act after 50 years". Weather. 61 (11): 311–314. Bibcode:2006Wthr...61..311B. doi:10.1256/wea.127.06. Retrieved 11 April 2024.
  32. ^ "Progress Cleaning the Air and Improving People's Health". US Environmental Protection Agency. 8 June 2015. Retrieved 11 April 2024.
  33. ^ Environment UN (29 October 2018). "About Montreal Protocol". Ozonaction. Retrieved 7 June 2022.
  34. ^ "The Montreal Protocol on Substances That Deplete the Ozone Layer". United States Department of State. Retrieved 7 June 2022.
  35. ^ "Protocol On Further Reduction Of Sulphur Emissions To The Convention On Long-Range Transboundary Air Pollution | International Environmental Agreements (IEA) Database Project". iea.uoregon.edu. Retrieved 7 June 2022.
  36. ^ Nations U. "ClimateChange". United Nations. Retrieved 7 June 2022.
  37. ^ "Climate change". www.who.int. World Health Organization. Retrieved 7 June 2022.
  38. ^ "Global Climate Agreements: Successes and Failures". Council on Foreign Relations. Retrieved 7 June 2022.
  39. ^ "Basic Information about NO2". US Environmental Protection Agency. 6 July 2016. Retrieved 12 April 2024.
  40. ^ "Radon". World Health Organization. Retrieved 12 April 2024.
  41. ^ Manisalidis I, Stavropoulou E, Stavropoulos A, Bezirtzoglou E (2020). "Environmental and Health Impacts of Air Pollution: A Review". Front Public Health. 8: 14. doi:10.3389/fpubh.2020.00014. PMC 7044178. PMID 32154200.
  42. ^ Perera F (23 December 2017). "Pollution from Fossil-Fuel Combustion is the Leading Environmental Threat to Global Pediatric Health and Equity: Solutions Exist". International Journal of Environmental Research and Public Health. 15 (1): 16. doi:10.3390/ijerph15010016. ISSN 1660-4601. PMC 5800116. PMID 29295510.
  43. ^ "Mapping methane emissions on a global scale". ESA. Archived from the original on 3 February 2022.
  44. ^ "Climate change: Satellites map huge methane plumes from oil and gas". BBC News. 4 February 2022. Retrieved 16 March 2022.
  45. ^ "Cracking down on methane 'ultra emitters' is a quick way to combat climate change, researchers find". The Washington Post. Retrieved 16 March 2022.
  46. ^ Lauvaux T, Giron C, Mazzolini M, d'Aspremont A, Duren R, Cusworth D, et al. (4 February 2022). "Global assessment of oil and gas methane ultra-emitters". Science. 375 (6580): 557–561. arXiv:2105.06387. Bibcode:2022Sci...375..557L. doi:10.1126/science.abj4351. ISSN 0036-8075. PMID 35113691. S2CID 246530897.
  47. ^ Rentschler J, Leonova N (2023). "Global air pollution exposure and poverty". Nature Communications. 14 (1): 4432. Bibcode:2023NatCo..14.4432R. doi:10.1038/s41467-023-39797-4. PMC 10363163. PMID 37481598.
  48. ^ Pennise D, Smith K. "Biomass Pollution Basics" (PDF). World Health Organization. Archived from the original (PDF) on 9 July 2012.
  49. ^ "Indoor air pollution and household energy". WHO and UNEP. 2011.
  50. ^ Hawkes N (22 May 2015). "Air pollution in UK: the public health problem that won't go away". BMJ. 350 (may22 1): h2757. doi:10.1136/bmj.h2757. PMID 26001592. S2CID 40717317.
  51. ^ "Wood burning heaters and your health - Fact sheets". www.health.nsw.gov.au.
  52. ^ Tsiodra I, Grivas G, Tavernaraki K, Bougiatioti A, Apostolaki M, Paraskevopoulou D, et al. (7 December 2021). "Annual exposure to polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons in urban environments linked to wintertime wood-burning episodes". Atmospheric Chemistry and Physics. 21 (23): 17865–17883. Bibcode:2021ACP....2117865T. doi:10.5194/acp-21-17865-2021. ISSN 1680-7316. S2CID 245103794.
  53. ^ Nace T. "China Shuts Down Tens Of Thousands Of Factories In Widespread Pollution Crackdown". Forbes. Retrieved 16 June 2022. ... it is estimated that 40 percent of all China's factories have been shut down at some point in order to be inspected... [and] over 80,000 factories have been hit with fines and criminal offenses as a result of their emissions.
  54. ^ Huo H, Zhang Q, Guan D, Su X, Zhao H, He K (16 December 2014). "Examining Air Pollution in China Using Production- And Consumption-Based Emissions Accounting Approaches". Environmental Science & Technology. 48 (24): 14139–14147. Bibcode:2014EnST...4814139H. doi:10.1021/es503959t. ISSN 0013-936X. PMID 25401750.
  55. ^ Huo H, Zhang Q, Guan D, Su X, Zhao H, He K (16 December 2014). "Examining Air Pollution in China Using Production- And Consumption-Based Emissions Accounting Approaches". Environmental Science & Technology. 48 (24): 14139–14147. Bibcode:2014EnST...4814139H. doi:10.1021/es503959t. ISSN 0013-936X. PMID 25401750.
  56. ^ "EMEP/EEA air pollutant emission inventory guidebook 2019".
  57. ^ "Particulate Matter (PM), US EPA". 19 April 2016.
  58. ^ "GovHK: Green Tips for Home Renovation". GovHK. 16 September 2024. Retrieved 22 September 2024.
  59. ^ "Health crisis: Up to a billion tons of waste potentially burned in the open every year". phys.org. Retrieved 13 February 2021.
  60. ^ Cook E, Velis CA (6 January 2021). "Global Review on Safer End of Engineered Life". Global Review on Safer End of Engineered Life. Retrieved 13 February 2021.
  61. ^ "Combustion Pollutants in Your Home - Guidelines". California Air Resources Board. Retrieved 16 June 2022. "... most furnaces, wood stoves, fireplaces, gas water heaters, and gas clothes dryers, usually vent (exhaust) the combustion pollutants directly to the outdoors. However, if the vent system is not properly designed, installed, and maintained, indoor pollutants can build up quickly inside the home.
  62. ^ "Overview of Air Pollution from Transportation". US Environmental Protection Agency. 15 December 2021. Retrieved 16 June 2022.
  63. ^ Ryan RG, Marais EA, Balhatchet CJ, Eastham SD (June 2022). "Impact of Rocket Launch and Space Debris Air Pollutant Emissions on Stratospheric Ozone and Global Climate". Earth's Future. 10 (6): e2021EF002612. Bibcode:2022EaFut..1002612R. doi:10.1029/2021EF002612. ISSN 2328-4277. PMC 9287058. PMID 35865359.
  64. ^ Yeung J. "Microplastics in our air 'spiral the globe' in a cycle of pollution, study finds". CNN. Retrieved 4 August 2022.
  65. ^ Wang J, Wu Q, Liu J, Yang H, Yin M, Chen S, et al. (2019). "Vehicle emission and atmospheric pollution in China: problems, progress, and prospects". PeerJ. 7: e6932. doi:10.7717/peerj.6932. PMC 6526014. PMID 31143547.
  66. ^ Air Quality Expert Group (2004). Nitrogen Dioxide in the United Kingdom (PDF). Department for Environment, Food and Rural Affairs. Retrieved 12 April 2024.
  67. ^ Aggarwal P, Jain S (2015). "Impact of air pollutants from surface transport sources on human health: A modeling and epidemiological approach". Environ Int. 83: 146–57. Bibcode:2015EnInt..83..146A. doi:10.1016/j.envint.2015.06.010. PMID 26142107.
  68. ^ "NASA GISS: NASA News & Feature Releases:Road Transportation Emerges as Key Driver of Warming". www.giss.nasa.gov. Retrieved 4 August 2022.
  69. ^ "Car Emissions & Global Warming | Union of Concerned Scientists". www.ucsusa.org. Retrieved 4 August 2022.
  70. ^ "NASA's AIRS Maps Carbon Monoxide from Brazil Fires". NASA Jet Propulsion Laboratory (JPL). Retrieved 4 August 2022.
  71. ^ Harper AR, Doerr SH, Santin C, Froyd CA, Sinnadurai P (15 May 2018). "Prescribed fire and its impacts on ecosystem services in the UK". Science of the Total Environment. 624: 691–703. Bibcode:2018ScTEn.624..691H. doi:10.1016/j.scitotenv.2017.12.161. ISSN 0048-9697. PMID 29272838.
  72. ^ George Neary D, McMichael Leonard J (8 April 2020), Missiakô Kindomihou V (ed.), "Effects of Fire on Grassland Soils and Water: A Review", Grasses and Grassland Aspects, IntechOpen, doi:10.5772/intechopen.90747, ISBN 978-1-78984-949-3, S2CID 213578405, retrieved 7 June 2022
  73. ^ Husseini R, Aboah DT, Issifu H (1 March 2020). "Fire control systems in forest reserves: An assessment of three forest districts in the Northern region, Ghana". Scientific African. 7: e00245. Bibcode:2020SciAf...700245H. doi:10.1016/j.sciaf.2019.e00245. ISSN 2468-2276. S2CID 213400214.
  74. ^ Reyes O, Casal M (November 2004). "Effects of forest fire ash on germination and early growth of four pinus species". Plant Ecology. 175 (1): 81–89. Bibcode:2004PlEco.175...81R. doi:10.1023/B:VEGE.0000048089.25497.0c. ISSN 1385-0237. S2CID 20388177.
  75. ^ Chatterjee R (15 February 2018). "Wall Paint, Perfumes and Cleaning Agents Are Polluting Our Air". NPR. Retrieved 12 March 2019.
  76. ^ "Basic Information about Landfill Gas". US Environmental Protection Agency. 15 April 2016. Retrieved 9 August 2022. Landfill gas (LFG) is a natural byproduct of the decomposition of organic material in landfills. LFG is composed of roughly 50 percent methane...
  77. ^ "Open waste burning prevention | Climate & Clean Air Coalition". www.ccacoalition.org. 7 September 2023. Retrieved 22 December 2023.
  78. ^ Hafemeister D (2016), "Biological and Chemical Weapons", Nuclear Proliferation and Terrorism in the Post-9/11 World, Cham: Springer International Publishing, pp. 337–351, doi:10.1007/978-3-319-25367-1_15, ISBN 978-3-319-25365-7, PMC 7123302
  79. ^ Sun F, Dai Y, Yu X (December 2017). "Air pollution, food production and food security: A review from the perspective of food system". Journal of Integrative Agriculture. 16 (12): 2945–2962. Bibcode:2017JIAgr..16.2945S. doi:10.1016/S2095-3119(17)61814-8.
  80. ^ Lelieveld J, Evans JS, Fnais M, Giannadaki D, Pozzer A (September 2015). "The contribution of outdoor air pollution sources to premature mortality on a global scale". Nature. 525 (7569): 367–371. Bibcode:2015Natur.525..367L. doi:10.1038/nature15371. ISSN 1476-4687. PMID 26381985. S2CID 4460927. Whereas in much of the USA and in a few other countries emissions from traffic and power generation are important, in eastern USA, Europe, Russia and East Asia agricultural emissions make the largest relative contribution to PM2.5, with the estimate of overall health impact depending on assumptions regarding particle toxicity.
  81. ^ Diep F (31 January 2018). "California's Farms Are an Even Larger Source of Air Pollution Than We Thought". Pacific Standard. Retrieved 2 February 2018.
  82. ^ Nemecek T, Poore J (1 June 2018). "Reducing food's environmental impacts through producers and consumers". Science. 360 (6392): 987–992. Bibcode:2018Sci...360..987P. doi:10.1126/science.aaq0216. ISSN 0036-8075. PMID 29853680. S2CID 206664954.
  83. ^ "Education Data, Visualizations & Graphics on particulate pollution". www.cleanairresources.com. Archived from the original on 20 March 2019. Retrieved 20 March 2019.
  84. ^ Goldstein AH, Koven CD, Heald CL, Fung IY (5 May 2009). "Biogenic carbon and anthropogenic pollutants combine to form a cooling haze over the southeastern United States". Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences. 106 (22): 8835–40. Bibcode:2009PNAS..106.8835G. doi:10.1073/pnas.0904128106. PMC 2690056. PMID 19451635.
  85. ^ Fischetti M (2014). "Trees That Pollute". Scientific American. 310 (6): 14. Bibcode:2014SciAm.310f..14F. doi:10.1038/scientificamerican0614-14. PMID 25004561.
  86. ^ "Volcanic Pollution |". Retrieved 27 February 2022.
  87. ^ "Air Pollution Emissions". US EPA. 2016. Retrieved 7 June 2022.
  88. ^ Environment and Climate Change Canada (14 June 2010). "Air pollutant emissions". Canada.ca. Retrieved 7 June 2022.
  89. ^ Manisalidis I, Stavropoulou E, Stavropoulos A, Bezirtzoglou E (20 February 2020). "Environmental and Health Impacts of Air Pollution: A Review". Frontiers in Public Health. 8: 14. doi:10.3389/fpubh.2020.00014. ISSN 2296-2565. PMC 7044178. PMID 32154200.
  90. ^ "AP 42, Volume I". US Environmental Protection Agency. Archived from the original on 24 September 2010. Retrieved 29 August 2010.
  91. ^ "United Kingdom's emission factor database". Naei.org.uk. Archived from the original on 7 July 2010. Retrieved 29 August 2010.
  92. ^ "EMEP/EEA air pollutant emission inventory guidebook—2009". Eea.europa.eu. European Environmental Agency. 19 June 2009. Retrieved 11 December 2012.
  93. ^ "Environmental Pollution". Theenvironmentalblog.org. 16 December 2011. Retrieved 11 December 2012.
  94. ^ "Revised 1996 IPCC Guidelines for National Greenhouse Gas Inventories (reference manual)". Ipcc-nggip.iges.or.jp. Archived from the original on 21 March 2008. Retrieved 29 August 2010.
  95. ^ US EPA O (10 December 2015). "Managing Air Quality - Air Pollutant Types". www.epa.gov. US Environmental Protection Agency. Retrieved 27 February 2022.
  96. ^ Hidy G (2012). Aerosols: An Industrial and Environmental Science. Elsevier. p. 1. ISBN 978-0-323-14251-9.
  97. ^ Carrington D (4 November 2021). "Ammonia from farms behind 60% of UK particulate air pollution – study". The Guardian. Retrieved 7 November 2021.
  98. ^ "The Effect of Changing Background Emissions on External Cost Estimates for Secondary Particulates". Open environmental sciences. 2008.
  99. ^ Johnson K (18 April 2009). "How Carbon Dioxide Became a 'Pollutant'". Wall Street Journal.
  100. ^ "Carbon dioxide". The National Institute for Occupational Safety and Health (NIOSH). U.S. Department of Health & Human Services. 30 October 2019. Retrieved 19 April 2023.
  101. ^ a b "General hazards of Carbon Dioxide". Health and Safety Executive. UK Government. Retrieved 19 April 2023. For over a century CO2 has been recognised as a workplace hazard at high concentrations. CO2 is naturally present in the air we breathe at a concentration of about 0.037% and is not harmful to health at low concentrations.
  102. ^ Air Quality Guidelines Global Update 2005: Particulate matter, ozone, nitrogen dioxide and sulfur dioxide. Copenhagen, Denmark: World Health Organization. 2006. p. 12. ISBN 92-890-2192-6. Some pollutants, and especially those associated with greenhouse warming effects (carbon dioxide, nitrous oxide and methane)...
  103. ^ Vaidyanathan G. "The Worst Climate Pollution Is Carbon Dioxide". Scientific American.
  104. ^ Barbalace RC (7 November 2006). "CO2 Pollution and Global Warming: When does carbon dioxide become a pollutant?". Environmentalchemistry.com.
  105. ^ Friedman L (22 August 2022). "Democrats Designed the Climate Law to Be a Game Changer. Here's How". The New York Times. Retrieved 19 April 2023.
  106. ^ "Graphic: The relentless rise of carbon dioxide". Climate Change: Vital Signs of the Planet. NASA.
  107. ^ "How much of U.S. carbon dioxide emissions are associated with electricity generation?". Retrieved 16 December 2016.
  108. ^ "Full Mauna Loa CO2 record". Earth System Research Laboratory. Retrieved 10 January 2017.
  109. ^ "OECD Test Guidelines for Chemicals".
  110. ^ "The Strange Lake Nyos CO2 Gas Disaster: Impacts and The Displacement and Return of Affected Communities".
  111. ^ "Carbon Monoxide Poisoning – NHS". 17 October 2017.
  112. ^ US EPA O (5 June 2017). "Basic Ozone Layer Science". www.epa.gov. US Environmental Protection Agency. Retrieved 7 June 2022.
  113. ^ "Chlorofluorocarbons (CFCs) are heavier than air, so how do scientists suppose that these chemicals reach the altitude of the ozone layer to adversely affect it?". Scientific American. Retrieved 7 June 2022.
  114. ^ "What is Particulate Matter? | Urban Environmental Program in New England". US EPA. 29 March 2022. Archived from the original on 7 June 2022. Retrieved 7 June 2022.
  115. ^ Munsif R, Zubair M, Aziz A, Nadeem Zafar M (7 January 2021), Viskup R (ed.), "Industrial Air Emission Pollution: Potential Sources and Sustainable Mitigation", Environmental Emissions, IntechOpen, doi:10.5772/intechopen.93104, ISBN 978-1-83968-510-1, S2CID 234150821, retrieved 7 June 2022
  116. ^ "Evidence growing of air pollution's link to heart disease, death". Archived from the original on 3 June 2010. Retrieved 18 May 2010. // American Heart Association. 10 May 2010
  117. ^ Balmes J, Fine J, Sheppard D (1987). "Symptomatic bronchoconstriction after short-term inhalation of sulfur dioxide". American Review of Respiratory Disease. 136 (5): 1117–21. doi:10.1164/ajrccm/136.5.1117. PMID 3674573.
  118. ^ Singh R, Kumar S, Karmakar S, Siddiqui AJ, Mathur A, Adnan M, et al. (2021). "2: Causes, Consequences, and Control of Persistent Organic Pollutants". In Kumar N, Shukla V (eds.). Persistent Organic Pollutants in the Environment: Origin and Role. CRC Press. pp. 31–54. ISBN 978-1-003-05317-0. Retrieved 11 June 2022.
  119. ^ "Newly detected air pollutant mimics damaging effects of cigarette smoke" (PDF). Physorg.com. Retrieved 29 August 2010.
  120. ^ "Infant Inhalation Of Ultra-fine Air Pollution Linked To Adult Lung Disease". Sciencedaily.com. 23 July 2009. Retrieved 29 August 2010.
  121. ^ Kim KH, Jahan SA, Kabir E, Brown RJ (1 October 2013). "A review of airborne polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons (PAHs) and their human health effects". Environment International. 60: 71–80. Bibcode:2013EnInt..60...71K. doi:10.1016/j.envint.2013.07.019. ISSN 0160-4120. PMID 24013021.
  122. ^ "Technical Overview of Volatile Organic Compounds". US Environmental Protection Agency. 14 March 2023. Retrieved 20 April 2023.
  123. ^ Read "Rethinking the Ozone Problem in Urban and Regional Air Pollution" at NAP.edu. 1991. doi:10.17226/1889. ISBN 978-0-309-04631-2.
  124. ^ "ESS Topic 6.3: Photochemical Smog". Amazing World of Science With Mr. Green. Retrieved 7 June 2022.
  125. ^ Arkansas Energy Department of Energy and Environment. "Cars and Air Pollution". www.adeq.state.ar.us. Retrieved 24 August 2024.
  126. ^ Acharya B (1 January 2018), Basu P (ed.), "Chapter 10 - Cleaning of Product Gas of Gasification", Biomass Gasification, Pyrolysis and Torrefaction (Third Edition), Academic Press, pp. 373–391, ISBN 978-0-12-812992-0, retrieved 7 June 2022
  127. ^ "smog | National Geographic Society". education.nationalgeographic.org. National Geographic. Retrieved 7 June 2022.
  128. ^ "Hazardous Air Pollutants". US Environmental Protection Agency. 9 February 2023. Retrieved 29 April 2023.
  129. ^ "Air quality standards". European Environment Agency. Retrieved 29 April 2023.
  130. ^ a b c d e Vallero DA (1 October 2007). Fundamentals of Air Pollution (4th ed.). Academic Press. ISBN 9780124054813.
  131. ^ Dons E (2011). "Impact of time-activity patterns on personal exposure to black carbon". Atmospheric Environment. 45 (21): 3594–3602. Bibcode:2011AtmEn..45.3594D. doi:10.1016/j.atmosenv.2011.03.064.
  132. ^ Dons E (2019). "Transport most likely to cause air pollution peak exposures in everyday life: Evidence from over 2000 days of personal monitoring". Atmospheric Environment. 213: 424–432. Bibcode:2019AtmEn.213..424D. doi:10.1016/j.atmosenv.2019.06.035. hdl:10044/1/80194. S2CID 197131423.
  133. ^ Carrington D (22 September 2021). "WHO slashes guideline limits on air pollution from fossil fuels". The Guardian. Retrieved 22 September 2021.
  134. ^ "Most of the World Breathes Unsafe Air, Taking More Than 2 Years Off Global Life Expectancy". AQLI. 14 June 2022. Retrieved 12 July 2022.
  135. ^ a b "Taking an Exposure History: What Are Possible Sources of Indoor Air Pollution | Environmental Medicine | ATSDR". www.atsdr.cdc.gov. 9 February 2021. Retrieved 8 July 2024.Public Domain This article incorporates text from this source, which is in the public domain.
  136. ^ a b Duflo E, Greenstone M, Hanna R (26 November 2008). "Indoor air pollution, health and economic well-being". S.A.P.I.EN.S. 1 (1). Retrieved 29 August 2010.
  137. ^ a b "Improved Clean Cookstoves". Project Drawdown. 7 February 2020. Retrieved 5 December 2020.
  138. ^ Twilley N (1 April 2019). "The Hidden Air Pollution in Our Homes". The New Yorker – via www.newyorker.com.
  139. ^ "Bucknell tent death: Hannah Thomas-Jones died from carbon monoxide poisoning". BBC News. 17 January 2013. Retrieved 22 September 2015.
  140. ^ "Chapter 6.2. Asbestos. Air quality guidelines, Second edition" (PDF). World Health Organization Europe. Archived from the original (PDF) on 24 May 2011.
  141. ^ a b Carrington D (18 May 2021). "Air pollution linked to 'huge' rise in child asthma GP visits". The Guardian. Retrieved 22 May 2021.
  142. ^ Kampa M, Castanas E (1 January 2008). "Human health effects of air pollution". Environmental Pollution. Proceedings of the 4th International Workshop on Biomonitoring of Atmospheric Pollution (With Emphasis on Trace Elements). 151 (2): 362–367. Bibcode:2008EPoll.151..362K. doi:10.1016/j.envpol.2007.06.012. ISSN 0269-7491. PMID 17646040. S2CID 38513536.
  143. ^ Dovjak M, Kukec A (2019). "Health Outcomes Related to Built Environments". Creating Healthy and Sustainable Buildings. Switzerland: Springer International Publishing. pp. 43–82. doi:10.1007/978-3-030-19412-3_2. ISBN 978-3-030-19411-6. OCLC 1285508857. S2CID 190160283.
  144. ^ "Long-Term Exposure to Low Levels of Air Pollution Increases Risk of Heart and Lung Disease". Science Daily. 22 February 2021.
  145. ^ Vohra K, Vodonos A, Schwartz J, Marais EA, Sulprizio MP, Mickley LJ (1 April 2021). "Global mortality from outdoor fine particle pollution generated by fossil fuel combustion: Results from GEOS-Chem". Environmental Research. 195: 110754. Bibcode:2021ER....19510754V. doi:10.1016/j.envres.2021.110754. ISSN 0013-9351. PMID 33577774.
  146. ^ "Air quality and health". Who.int. World Health Organization. Retrieved 26 November 2011.
  147. ^ US EPA O (22 February 2013). "Regulatory and Guidance Information by Topic: Air". www.epa.gov. Retrieved 10 November 2022.
  148. ^ Majumder N, Kodali V, Velayutham M, Goldsmith T, Amedro J, Khramtsov VV, et al. (2022). "Aerosol physicochemical determinants of carbon black and ozone inhalation co-exposure induced pulmonary toxicity". Toxicological Sciences. 191 (1): 61–78. doi:10.1093/toxsci/kfac113. PMC 9887725. PMID 36303316.
  149. ^ Ritchie H, Roser M (2021). "What are the safest and cleanest sources of energy?". Our World in Data. Archived from the original on 15 January 2024. Data sources: Markandya & Wilkinson (2007); UNSCEAR (2008; 2018); Sovacool et al. (2016); IPCC AR5 (2014); Pehl et al. (2017); Ember Energy (2021).
  150. ^ Roser M (18 March 2024). "Data review: how many people die from air pollution?". Our World in Data.
  151. ^ Whitacre P (9 February 2021). "Air Pollution Accounts for 1 in 8 Deaths Worldwide, According to New WHO Estimates". National Institute of Environmental Health Sciences. Archived from the original on 4 November 2022. Retrieved 18 February 2022.
  152. ^ Lelieveld J, Klingmüller K, Pozzer A, Burnett RT, Haines A, Ramanathan V (9 April 2019). "Effects of fossil fuel and total anthropogenic emission removal on public health and climate". Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences. 116 (15): 7192–7197. Bibcode:2019PNAS..116.7192L. doi:10.1073/pnas.1819989116. ISSN 0027-8424. PMC 6462052. PMID 30910976.
  153. ^ a b Carrington D (12 March 2019). "Air pollution deaths are double previous estimates, finds research". The Guardian. Retrieved 12 March 2019.
  154. ^ Dickie G (18 May 2022). "Pollution killing 9 million people a year, Africa hardest hit - study". Reuters. Retrieved 23 June 2022.
  155. ^ World Health Organisation (29 October 2018). "More than 90% of the world's children breathe toxic air every day". www.who.int. Retrieved 13 August 2024.
  156. ^ a b "Ambient (outdoor) air pollution". www.who.int. World Health Organization. Retrieved 20 December 2021.
  157. ^ Baccarelli AA, Hales N, Burnett RT, Jerrett M, Mix C, Dockery DW, et al. (1 November 2016). "Particulate Air Pollution, Exceptional Aging, and Rates of Centenarians: A Nationwide Analysis of the United States, 1980–2010". Environmental Health Perspectives. 124 (11): 1744–1750. doi:10.1289/EHP197. PMC 5089884. PMID 27138440.
  158. ^ Pope CA (15 December 2003). "Cardiovascular Mortality and Long-Term Exposure to Particulate Air Pollution: Epidemiological Evidence of General Pathophysiological Pathways of Disease". Circulation. 109 (1): 71–77. doi:10.1161/01.CIR.0000108927.80044.7F. PMID 14676145.
  159. ^ Harris G (25 January 2014). "Beijing's Bad Air Would Be Step Up for Smoggy Delhi". The New York Times. ISSN 0362-4331. Retrieved 28 April 2023.
  160. ^ Owusu PA, Sarkodie SA (10 November 2020). "Global estimation of mortality, disability-adjusted life years and welfare cost from exposure to ambient air pollution". Science of the Total Environment. 742: 140636. Bibcode:2020ScTEn.74240636O. doi:10.1016/j.scitotenv.2020.140636. ISSN 0048-9697. PMID 32721745. S2CID 220848545.
  161. ^ "Lancet study: Pollution killed 2.3 million Indians in 2019". BBC News. 18 May 2022. Retrieved 28 April 2023.
  162. ^ Mr Chen's claim was made in The Lancet (December 2013 issue) and reported in The Daily Telegraph 8 January 2014 p. 15 'Air pollution killing up to 500,000 Chinese each year, admits former health minister.
  163. ^ Feng T, Chen H, Liu J (15 December 2022). "Air pollution-induced health impacts and health economic losses in China driven by US demand exports". Journal of Environmental Management. 324: 116355. Bibcode:2022JEnvM.32416355F. doi:10.1016/j.jenvman.2022.116355. ISSN 0301-4797. PMID 36179470.
  164. ^ a b "Car emissions: taking tests out of the lab and onto the road – News". European Parliament. 25 February 2016. Retrieved 11 January 2018.
  165. ^ "Air pollution causes early deaths". BBC. 21 February 2005. Retrieved 14 August 2012.
  166. ^ "Complete Guide To The 'Toxin Tax' For Diesel Cars". Motorway. Retrieved 25 May 2017.
  167. ^ "Study links traffic pollution to thousands of deaths". The Guardian. London, UK. 15 April 2008. Archived from the original on 20 April 2008. Retrieved 15 April 2008.
  168. ^ Mailloux NA, Abel DW, Holloway T, Patz JA (16 May 2022). "Nationwide and Regional PM2.5-Related Air Quality Health Benefits From the Removal of Energy-Related Emissions in the United States". GeoHealth. 6 (5): e2022GH000603. Bibcode:2022GHeal...6..603M. doi:10.1029/2022GH000603. PMC 9109601. PMID 35599962.
  169. ^ a b Henneman L, Choirat C, Dedoussi I, Dominici F, Roberts J, Zigler C (24 November 2023). "Mortality risk from United States coal electricity generation". Science. 382 (6673): 941–946. Bibcode:2023Sci...382..941H. doi:10.1126/science.adf4915. PMC 10870829. PMID 37995235.
  170. ^ a b Nansai K, Tohno S, Chatani S, Kanemoto K, Kagawa S, Kondo Y, et al. (2 November 2021). "Consumption in the G20 nations causes particulate air pollution resulting in two million premature deaths annually". Nature Communications. 12 (1): 6286. Bibcode:2021NatCo..12.6286N. doi:10.1038/s41467-021-26348-y. ISSN 2041-1723. PMC 8563796. PMID 34728619.
  171. ^ Vohra K, Vodonos A, Schwartz J, Marais EA, Sulprizio MP, Mickley LJ (1 April 2021). "Global mortality from outdoor fine particle pollution generated by fossil fuel combustion: Results from GEOS-Chem". Environmental Research. 195: 110754. Bibcode:2021ER....19510754V. doi:10.1016/j.envres.2021.110754. ISSN 0013-9351. PMID 33577774. S2CID 231909881. Retrieved 5 March 2021.
  172. ^ Mackenzie J, Turrentine J (22 June 2021). "Air Pollution: Everything You Need to Know". NRDC. Retrieved 18 June 2022.
  173. ^ Farrow A, Miller KA, Myllyvirta L (February 2020). Toxic air: The price of fossil fuels (PDF). Seoul: Greenpeace Southeast Asia.
  174. ^ Lucking AJ, Lundback M, Mills NL, Faratian D, Barath SL, Pourazar J, et al. (2008). "Diesel exhaust inhalation increases thrombus formation in man". European Heart Journal. 29 (24): 3043–51. doi:10.1093/eurheartj/ehn464. PMID 18952612.
  175. ^ Törnqvist HK, Mills NL, Gonzalez M, Miller MR, Robinson SD, Megson IL, et al. (2007). "Persistent Endothelial Dysfunction in Humans after Diesel Exhaust Inhalation". American Journal of Respiratory and Critical Care Medicine. 176 (4): 395–400. doi:10.1164/rccm.200606-872OC. PMID 17446340.
  176. ^ "Air pollution from G20 consumers caused two million deaths in 2010". New Scientist. Retrieved 11 December 2021.
  177. ^ Tankersley J (8 January 2010). "EPA proposes nation's strictest smog limits ever". Los Angeles Times. Retrieved 14 August 2012.
  178. ^ "EPA slideshow" (PDF). Retrieved 11 December 2012.
  179. ^ "EPA Strengthens Ozone Standards to Protect Public Health/Science-based standards to reduce sick days, asthma attacks, emergency room visits, greatly outweigh costs (10/1/2015)". Yosemite.epa.gov. Retrieved 11 January 2018.
  180. ^ Grossni M (13 November 2008). "Human cost of valley's dirty air: $6.3 billion". Sacramento Bee. Archived from the original on 16 December 2008. Retrieved 14 August 2012.
  181. ^ Sahagun L (13 November 2008). "Pollution saps state's economy, study says". Los Angeles Times. Retrieved 14 August 2012.
  182. ^ Kay J (13 November 2008). "Bad air costing state's economy billions". San Francisco Chronicle. Retrieved 14 August 2012.
  183. ^ "Human health may be at risk from long-term exposure to air pollution below current air quality standards and guidelines". British Medical Journal. Retrieved 18 October 2021.
  184. ^ Strak M, Weinmayr G, Rodopoulou S, Chen J, Hoogh Kd, Andersen ZJ, et al. (2 September 2021). "Long term exposure to low level air pollution and mortality in eight European cohorts within the ELAPSE project: pooled analysis". BMJ. 374: n1904. doi:10.1136/bmj.n1904. ISSN 1756-1833. PMC 8409282. PMID 34470785.
  185. ^ Cohen AJ, Brauer M, Burnett R, Anderson HR, Frostad J, Estep K, et al. (May 2017). "Estimates and 25-year trends of the global burden of disease attributable to ambient air pollution: an analysis of data from the Global Burden of Diseases Study 2015". The Lancet. 389 (10082): 1907–1918. Bibcode:2017Lanc..389.1907C. doi:10.1016/S0140-6736(17)30505-6. ISSN 0140-6736. PMC 5439030. PMID 28408086.
  186. ^ a b de Bont J, Jaganathan S, Dahlquist M, Persson Å, Stafoggia M, Ljungman P (8 March 2022). "Ambient air pollution and cardiovascular diseases: An umbrella review of systematic reviews and meta-analyses". Journal of Internal Medicine. 291 (6): 779–800. doi:10.1111/joim.13467. eISSN 1365-2796. ISSN 0954-6820. PMC 9310863. PMID 35138681.
  187. ^ a b Mayor S (12 June 2016). "Air pollution is a leading risk factor for stroke, global study shows". BMJ. 353: i3272. doi:10.1136/bmj.i3272. eISSN 1756-1833. PMID 27298274.
  188. ^ Feigin VL, Roth GA, Naghavi M, Parmar P, Krishnamurthi R, Chugh S, et al. (August 2016). "Global burden of stroke and risk factors in 188 countries, during 1990–2013: a systematic analysis for the Global Burden of Disease Study 2013". The Lancet Neurology. 15 (9): 913–924. doi:10.1016/S1474-4422(16)30073-4. hdl:10292/14061. ISSN 1474-4422. PMID 27291521.
  189. ^ Miller KA, Siscovick DS, Sheppard L, Shepherd K, Sullivan JH, Anderson GL, et al. (2007). "Long-term exposure to air pollution and incidence of cardiovascular events in women". The New England Journal of Medicine. 356 (5): 447–58. doi:10.1056/NEJMoa054409. PMID 17267905.
  190. ^ Andersen ZJ, Kristiansen LC, Andersen KK, Olsen TS, Hvidberg M, Jensen SS, et al. (2011). "Stroke and Long-Term Exposure to Outdoor Air Pollution From Nitrogen Dioxide: A Cohort Study". Stroke. 43 (2): 320–25. doi:10.1161/STROKEAHA.111.629246. PMID 22052517.
  191. ^ Provost E, Madhloum N, Int Panis L, De Boever P, Nawrot T (May 2015). "Carotid intima-media thickness, a marker of subclinical atherosclerosis, and particulate air pollution exposure: the meta-analytical evidence". PLOS ONE. 10 (5): e0127014. Bibcode:2015PLoSO..1027014P. doi:10.1371/journal.pone.0127014. PMC 4430520. PMID 25970426. S2CID 11741224.
  192. ^ Brook R, Rajagopalan S, Pope CI, Brook J, Bhatnagar A (2010). "Particulate matter air pollution and cardiovascular disease: An update to the scientific statement from the American Heart Association". Circulation. 121 (21): 2331–78. doi:10.1161/cir.0b013e3181dbece1. hdl:2027.42/78373. PMID 20458016.
  193. ^ Louwies T, Int Panis L, Kicinski M, De Boever P, Nawrot TS (2013). "Retinal Microvascular Responses to Short-Term Changes in Particulate Air Pollution in Healthy Adults". Environmental Health Perspectives. 121 (9): 1011–16. doi:10.1289/ehp.1205721. PMC 3764070. PMID 23777785. S2CID 6748539.
  194. ^ Gehring U, Wijga AH, Brauer M, Fischer P, de Jongste JC, Kerkhof M, et al. (2010). "Traffic-related air pollution and the development of asthma and allergies during the first 8 years of life". American Journal of Respiratory and Critical Care Medicine. 181 (6): 596–603. doi:10.1164/rccm.200906-0858OC. PMID 19965811.
  195. ^ Andersen ZJ, Hvidberg M, Jensen SS, Ketzel M, Loft S, Sorensen M, et al. (2011). "Chronic obstructive pulmonary disease and long-term exposure to traffic-related air pollution: a cohort study. [Research Support, Non-U.S. Gov't]". American Journal of Respiratory and Critical Care Medicine. 183 (4): 455–461. doi:10.1164/rccm.201006-0937OC. PMID 20870755. S2CID 3945468.
  196. ^ Committee of the Environmental and Occupational Health Assembly of the American Thoracic Society (1996). "Health effects of outdoor air pollution". American Journal of Respiratory and Critical Care Medicine. 153 (1): 3–50. doi:10.1164/ajrccm.153.1.8542133. PMID 8542133.
  197. ^ Andersen ZJ, Bonnelykke K, Hvidberg M, Jensen SS, Ketzel M, Loft S, et al. (2011). "Long-term exposure to air pollution and asthma hospitalisations in older adults: a cohort study". Thorax. 67 (1): 6–11. doi:10.1136/thoraxjnl-2011-200711. PMID 21890573.
  198. ^ Zoidis JD (1999). "The Impact of Air Pollution on COPD". RT: For Decision Makers in Respiratory Care.
  199. ^ World Health Organisation. "Ambient air pollution". www.who.int. Retrieved 10 November 2023.
  200. ^ "Understanding Air Pollution". Respiratory Health Association. Retrieved 15 August 2022.
  201. ^ Holland WW, Reid DD. "The urban factor in chronic bronchitis" Lancet 1965;I:445–448.
  202. ^ Gauderman W (2007). "Effect of exposure to traffic on lung development from 10 to 18 years of age: a cohort study". The Lancet. 369 (9561): 571–77. CiteSeerX 10.1.1.541.1258. doi:10.1016/S0140-6736(07)60037-3. PMID 17307103. S2CID 852646.
  203. ^ Int Panis L (2017). "Short-term air pollution exposure decreases lung function: a repeated measures study in healthy adults". Environmental Health. 16 (1): 60. Bibcode:2017EnvHe..16...60I. doi:10.1186/s12940-017-0271-z. PMC 5471732. PMID 28615020. S2CID 20491472.
  204. ^ Sunyer J (2001). "Urban air pollution and Chronic Obstructive Pulmonary disease: a review". European Respiratory Journal. 17 (5): 1024–33. doi:10.1183/09031936.01.17510240. PMID 11488305.
  205. ^ a b "Cancer breakthrough is a 'wake-up' call on danger of air pollution". The Guardian. 10 September 2022. Retrieved 11 September 2022.
  206. ^ Hill W, Lim EL, Weeden CE, Lee C, Augustine M, Chen K, et al. (5 April 2023). "Lung adenocarcinoma promotion by air pollutants". Nature. 616 (7955): 159–167. Bibcode:2023Natur.616..159H. doi:10.1038/s41586-023-05874-3. ISSN 1476-4687. PMC 7614604. PMID 37020004.
  207. ^ "Education Data, Visualizations & Graphics on Air Quality and PM2.5". www.cleanairresources.com. Retrieved 19 September 2019.
  208. ^ Gallagher J (17 December 2015). "Cancer is not just 'bad luck' but down to environment, study suggests". BBC. Retrieved 17 December 2015.
  209. ^ a b Chen H, Goldberg M, Villeneuve P (October–December 2008). "A systematic review of the relation between long-term exposure to ambient air pollution and chronic diseases". Reviews on Environmental Health. 23 (4): 243–97. doi:10.1515/reveh.2008.23.4.243. PMID 19235364. S2CID 24481623.
  210. ^ Saber E, Heydari G (May 2012). "Flow patterns and deposition fraction of particles in the range of 0.1–10 μm at trachea and the first third generations under different breathing conditions". Computers in Biology and Medicine. 42 (5): 631–38. doi:10.1016/j.compbiomed.2012.03.002. PMID 22445097.
  211. ^ Raaschou-Nielsen O, Andersen ZJ, Hvidberg M, Jensen SS, Ketzel M, Sorensen M, et al. (2011). "Lung cancer incidence and long-term exposure to air pollution from traffic. [Research Support, Non-U.S. Gov't]". Environmental Health Perspectives. 119 (6): 860–65. doi:10.1289/ehp.1002353. PMC 3114823. PMID 21227886. S2CID 1323189.
  212. ^ Raaschou-Nielsen O, Andersen ZJ, Hvidberg M, Jensen SS, Ketzel M, Sorensen M, et al. (2011). "Air pollution from traffic and cancer incidence: a Danish cohort study". Environmental Health. 10 (1): 67. Bibcode:2011EnvHe..10...67R. doi:10.1186/1476-069X-10-67. PMC 3157417. PMID 21771295. S2CID 376897.
  213. ^ Yacong Bo (2021). "Reduced Ambient PM2.5 Was Associated with a Decreased Risk of Chronic Kidney Disease: A Longitudinal Cohort Study". Environmental Science & Technology. 55 (10): 6876–6883. Bibcode:2021EnST...55.6876B. doi:10.1021/acs.est.1c00552. PMID 33904723. S2CID 233408693.
  214. ^ Blum MF, Surapaneni A, Stewart JD, Liao D, Yanosky JD, Whitsel EA, et al. (6 March 2020). "Particulate Matter and Albuminuria, Glomerular Filtration Rate, and Incident CKD". Clinical Journal of the American Society of Nephrology. 15 (3): 311–319. doi:10.2215/CJN.08350719. ISSN 1555-9041. PMC 7057299. PMID 32108020.
  215. ^ a b c d e f Conforti A, Mascia M, Cioffi G, De Angelis C, Coppola G, De Rosa P, et al. (30 December 2018). "Air pollution and female fertility: a systematic review of literature". Reproductive Biology and Endocrinology. 16 (1): 117. doi:10.1186/s12958-018-0433-z. ISSN 1477-7827. PMC 6311303. PMID 30594197.
  216. ^ Canipari R, De Santis L, Cecconi S (January 2020). "Female Fertility and Environmental Pollution". International Journal of Environmental Research and Public Health. 17 (23): 8802. doi:10.3390/ijerph17238802. ISSN 1660-4601. PMC 7730072. PMID 33256215.
  217. ^ da Silva Junior FC, Felipe MB, Castro DE, Araújo SC, Sisenando HC, Batistuzzo de Medeiros SR (1 June 2021). "A look beyond the priority: A systematic review of the genotoxic, mutagenic, and carcinogenic endpoints of non-priority PAHs". Environmental Pollution. 278: 116838. Bibcode:2021EPoll.27816838D. doi:10.1016/j.envpol.2021.116838. ISSN 0269-7491. PMID 33714059. S2CID 232222865.
  218. ^ Plunk EC, Richards SM (January 2020). "Endocrine-Disrupting Air Pollutants and Their Effects on the Hypothalamus-Pituitary-Gonadal Axis". International Journal of Molecular Sciences. 21 (23): 9191. doi:10.3390/ijms21239191. ISSN 1422-0067. PMC 7731392. PMID 33276521.
  219. ^ Perono GA, Petrik JJ, Thomas PJ, Holloway AC (1 January 2022). "The effects of polycyclic aromatic compounds (PACs) on mammalian ovarian function". Current Research in Toxicology. 3: 100070. Bibcode:2022CRTox...300070P. doi:10.1016/j.crtox.2022.100070. ISSN 2666-027X. PMC 9043394. PMID 35492299.
  220. ^ a b Jurewicz J, Dziewirska E, Radwan M, Hanke W (23 December 2018). "Air pollution from natural and anthropic sources and male fertility". Reproductive Biology and Endocrinology. 16 (1): 109. doi:10.1186/s12958-018-0430-2. ISSN 1477-7827. PMC 6304234. PMID 30579357.
  221. ^ Frutos V, González-Comadrán M, Solà I, Jacquemin B, Carreras R, Checa Vizcaíno MA (2 January 2015). "Impact of air pollution on fertility: a systematic review". Gynecological Endocrinology. 31 (1): 7–13. doi:10.3109/09513590.2014.958992. ISSN 0951-3590. PMID 25212280. S2CID 41594539.
  222. ^ Checa Vizcaíno MA, González-Comadran M, Jacquemin B (September 2016). "Outdoor air pollution and human infertility: a systematic review". Fertility and Sterility. 106 (4): 897–904.e1. doi:10.1016/j.fertnstert.2016.07.1110. ISSN 0015-0282. PMID 27513553.
  223. ^ a b c Carré J, Gatimel N, Moreau J, Parinaud J, Léandri R (28 July 2017). "Does air pollution play a role in infertility?: a systematic review". Environmental Health. 16 (1): 82. Bibcode:2017EnvHe..16...82C. doi:10.1186/s12940-017-0291-8. ISSN 1476-069X. PMC 5534122. PMID 28754128.
  224. ^ Jurewicz J, Dziewirska E, Radwan M, Hanke W (2018). "Air pollution from natural and anthropic sources and male fertility". Reproductive Biology and Endocrinology. 16 (1): 109. doi:10.1186/s12958-018-0430-2. PMC 6304234. PMID 30579357. S2CID 57376088. Retrieved 5 October 2022.
  225. ^ a b Air pollution and child health: prescribing clean air. Summary. Geneva: World Health Organisation. 2018. pp. 2–6.
  226. ^ a b Gordon B, Mackay R, Rehfuess E (2004). "Polluted Cities: The Air Children Breathe". Inheriting the World: The Atlas of Children's Health and the Environment. World Health Organisation.
  227. ^ Pieters N, Koppen G, Van Poppel M, De Prins S, Cox B, Dons E, et al. (March 2015). "Blood Pressure and Same-Day Exposure to Air Pollution at School: Associations with Nano-Sized to Coarse PM in Children". Environmental Health Perspectives. 123 (7): 737–42. doi:10.1289/ehp.1408121. PMC 4492263. PMID 25756964.
  228. ^ Perera FP, Tang D, Wang S, Vishnevetsky J, Zhang B, Diaz D, et al. (1 June 2012). "Prenatal Polycyclic Aromatic Hydrocarbon (PAH) Exposure and Child Behavior at Age 6–7 Years". Environmental Health Perspectives. 120 (6): 921–926. doi:10.1289/ehp.1104315. PMC 3385432. PMID 22440811.
  229. ^ Perera FP, Chang Hw, Tang D, Roen EL, Herbstman J, Margolis A, et al. (5 November 2014). "Early-Life Exposure to Polycyclic Aromatic Hydrocarbons and ADHD Behavior Problems". PLOS ONE. 9 (11): e111670. Bibcode:2014PLoSO...9k1670P. doi:10.1371/journal.pone.0111670. ISSN 1932-6203. PMC 4221082. PMID 25372862.
  230. ^ Becerra TA, Wilhelm M, Olsen J, Cockburn M, Ritz B (1 March 2013). "Ambient Air Pollution and Autism in Los Angeles County, California". Environmental Health Perspectives. 121 (3): 380–386. doi:10.1289/ehp.1205827. PMC 3621187. PMID 23249813.
  231. ^ Carter SA, Rahman MM, Lin JC, Shu YH, Chow T, Yu X, et al. (1 January 2022). "In utero exposure to near-roadway air pollution and autism spectrum disorder in children". Environment International. 158: 106898. Bibcode:2022EnInt.15806898C. doi:10.1016/j.envint.2021.106898. ISSN 0160-4120. PMC 8688235. PMID 34627014.
  232. ^ Flanagan E, Malmqvist E, Rittner R, Gustafsson P, Källén K, Oudin A (8 March 2023). "Exposure to local, source-specific ambient air pollution during pregnancy and autism in children: a cohort study from southern Sweden". Scientific Reports. 13 (1): 3848. Bibcode:2023NatSR..13.3848F. doi:10.1038/s41598-023-30877-5. ISSN 2045-2322. PMC 9995328. PMID 36890287.
  233. ^ Ritz B, Liew Z, Yan Q, Cuia X, Virk J, Ketzel M, et al. (December 2018). "Air pollution and autism in Denmark". Environmental Epidemiology. 2 (4): e028. doi:10.1097/EE9.0000000000000028. PMC 6474375. PMID 31008439.
  234. ^ Perera F, Herbstman J (1 April 2011). "Prenatal environmental exposures, epigenetics, and disease". Reproductive Toxicology. Prenatal Programming and Toxicity II (PPTOX II): Role of Environmental Stressors in the Developmental Origins of Disease. 31 (3): 363–373. Bibcode:2011RepTx..31..363P. doi:10.1016/j.reprotox.2010.12.055. ISSN 0890-6238. PMC 3171169. PMID 21256208.
  235. ^ Papamitsou T, Sirak S, Kavvadas D (January–March 2020). "Air pollution and preterm birth: a recommendation for further study in Greece". Hippokratia. 24 (1): 44. PMC 7733367. PMID 33364740.
  236. ^ Fleischer NL, Merialdi M, van Donkelaar A, Vadillo-Ortega F, Martin RV, Betran AP, et al. (1 April 2014). "Outdoor air pollution, preterm birth, and low birth weight: analysis of the World Health Organization global survey on maternal and perinatal health". Environmental Health Perspectives. 122 (4): 425–30. doi:10.1289/ehp.1306837. ISSN 1552-9924. PMC 3984219. PMID 24508912. S2CID 3947454.
  237. ^ a b c Malley CS, Kuylenstierna JC, Vallack HW, Henze DK, Blencowe H, Ashmore MR (1 April 2017). "Preterm birth associated with maternal fine particulate matter exposure: A global, regional and national assessment" (PDF). Environment International. 101: 173–82. Bibcode:2017EnInt.101..173M. doi:10.1016/j.envint.2017.01.023. ISSN 1873-6750. PMID 28196630.
  238. ^ Bank EI (19 October 2022). Finance in Africa - Navigating the financial landscape in turbulent times. European Investment Bank. ISBN 978-92-861-5382-2.
  239. ^ "Silent Suffocation in Africa - Air Pollution is a Growing Menace, Affecting the Poorest Children the Most" (PDF). UNICEF.
  240. ^ "The cost of air pollution in Africa". Africa Renewal. Retrieved 31 October 2022.
  241. ^ Wang X, Ding H, Ryan L, Xu X (1 May 1997). "Association between air pollution and low birth weight: a community-based study". Environmental Health Perspectives. 105 (5): 514–20. doi:10.1289/ehp.97105514. ISSN 0091-6765. PMC 1469882. PMID 9222137. S2CID 2707126.
  242. ^ Brauer M, Lencar C, Tamburic L, Koehoorn M, Demers P, Karr C (1 May 2008). "A Cohort Study of Traffic-Related Air Pollution Impacts on Birth Outcomes". Environmental Health Perspectives. 116 (5): 680–6. doi:10.1289/ehp.10952. PMC 2367679. PMID 18470315. S2CID 7721551.
  243. ^ Bos I, De Boever P, Int Panis L, Meeusen R (2014). "Physical Activity, Air Pollution and the Brain". Sports Medicine. 44 (11): 1505–18. doi:10.1007/s40279-014-0222-6. PMID 25119155. S2CID 207493297.
  244. ^ Air pollution linked to much greater risk of dementia The Guardian
  245. ^ Julvez J, López-Vicente M, Warembourg C, Maitre L, Philippat C, Gützkow KB, et al. (1 September 2021). "Early life multiple exposures and child cognitive function: A multi-centric birth cohort study in six European countries". Environmental Pollution. 284: 117404. Bibcode:2021EPoll.28417404J. doi:10.1016/j.envpol.2021.117404. ISSN 0269-7491. PMC 8287594. PMID 34077897.
  246. ^ a b Costa LG, Cole TB, Dao K, Chang YC, Coburn J, Garrick JM (June 2020). "Effects of air pollution on the nervous system and its possible role in neurodevelopmental and neurodegenerative disorders". Pharmacology & Therapeutics. 210: 107523. doi:10.1016/j.pharmthera.2020.107523. ISSN 1879-016X. PMC 7245732. PMID 32165138.
  247. ^ Volk HE, Perera F, Braun JM, Kingsley SL, Gray K, Buckley J, et al. (1 May 2021). "Prenatal air pollution exposure and neurodevelopment: A review and blueprint for a harmonized approach within ECHO". Environmental Research. 196: 110320. Bibcode:2021ER....19610320V. doi:10.1016/j.envres.2020.110320. ISSN 0013-9351. PMC 8060371. PMID 33098817.
  248. ^ Shang L, Yang L, Yang W, Huang L, Qi C, Yang Z, et al. (1 July 2020). "Effects of prenatal exposure to NO2 on children's neurodevelopment: a systematic review and meta-analysis". Environmental Science and Pollution Research. 27 (20): 24786–24798. Bibcode:2020ESPR...2724786S. doi:10.1007/s11356-020-08832-y. ISSN 1614-7499. PMC 7329770. PMID 32356052. S2CID 216650267.
  249. ^ Allen JL, Liu X, Pelkowski S, Palmer B, Conrad K, Oberdörster G, et al. (5 June 2014). "Early Postnatal Exposure to Ultrafine Particulate Matter Air Pollution: Persistent Ventriculomegaly, Neurochemical Disruption, and Glial Activation Preferentially in Male Mice". Environmental Health Perspectives. 122 (9): 939–945. doi:10.1289/ehp.1307984. ISSN 0091-6765. PMC 4154219. PMID 24901756.
  250. ^ McEnaney M (7 June 2014). "Air pollution link discovered to autism, schizophrenia risks". Tech Times. Retrieved 8 June 2014.
  251. ^ "New evidence links air pollution to autism, schizophrenia". ScienceDaily. 5 June 2014. Retrieved 28 August 2024.
  252. ^ Persico C, Marcotte DE (November 2022). Air Quality and Suicide. Working Paper Series. National Bureau of Economic Research. doi:10.3386/w30626.cite book: CS1 maint: date and year (link)
  253. ^ Symons A (15 December 2022). "Suicide rates rise as air quality worsens, study finds". euronews. Retrieved 19 December 2022.
  254. ^ "New Study Demonstrates Indoor Building Environment Has Significant, Positive Impact on Cognitive Function". The New York Times. 26 October 2015. Archived from the original on 9 November 2020. Retrieved 10 November 2015.
  255. ^ Allen JG, MacNaughton P, Satish U, Santanam S, Vallarino J, Spengler JD (2015). "Associations of Cognitive Function Scores with Carbon Dioxide, Ventilation, and Volatile Organic Compound Exposures in Office Workers: A Controlled Exposure Study of Green and Conventional Office Environments". Environmental Health Perspectives. 124 (6): 805–12. doi:10.1289/ehp.1510037. PMC 4892924. PMID 26502459. S2CID 12756582.
  256. ^ Cedeño Laurent JG, MacNaughton P, Jones E, Young AS, Bliss M, Flanigan S, et al. (1 September 2021). "Associations between acute exposures to PM2.5 and carbon dioxide indoors and cognitive function in office workers: a multicountry longitudinal prospective observational study". Environmental Research Letters. 16 (9): 094047. Bibcode:2021ERL....16i4047C. doi:10.1088/1748-9326/ac1bd8. ISSN 1748-9326. PMC 8942432. PMID 35330988. S2CID 237462480.
  257. ^ Qian D (29 June 2017). "Air Pollution and Mortality in the Medicare Population". New England Journal of Medicine. 376 (26): 2513–2522. doi:10.1056/NEJMoa1702747. PMC 5766848. PMID 28657878. S2CID 12038778.
  258. ^ Pathak M, Kuttippurath J (2022). "Air quality trends in rural India: analysis of NO2 pollution using satellite measurements". Environmental Science: Processes & Impacts. 24 (12): 2437–2449. doi:10.1039/D2EM00293K. ISSN 2050-7887. PMID 36413251. S2CID 253261324.
  259. ^ Woodyatt A (3 June 2020). "Scientists say they have found the cleanest air on Earth". CNN. Retrieved 3 June 2020.
  260. ^ Hong C, Mueller ND, Burney JA, Zhang Y, AghaKouchak A, Moore FC, et al. (2020). "Impacts of ozone and climate change on yields of perennial crops in California". Nature Food. 1 (3): 166–172. doi:10.1038/s43016-020-0043-8. S2CID 216425480.
  261. ^ Li H, Tang M, Cao A, Guo L (2022). "Assessing the relationship between air pollution, agricultural insurance, and agricultural green total factor productivity: evidence from China". Environmental Science and Pollution Research. 29 (52): 78381–78395. Bibcode:2022ESPR...2978381L. doi:10.1007/s11356-022-21287-7. ISSN 0944-1344. PMID 35689771. S2CID 249551277.
  262. ^ Kashyap R, Kuttippurath J, Patel VK (2023). "Improved air quality leads to enhanced vegetation growth during the COVID–19 lockdown in India". Applied Geography. 151: 102869. Bibcode:2023AppGe.15102869K. doi:10.1016/j.apgeog.2022.102869. ISSN 0143-6228. PMC 9805897. PMID 36619606. S2CID 255439854.
  263. ^ Kuttippurath J, Singh A, Dash SP, Mallic N, Clerbaux C, Van Damme M, et al. (2020). "Record high levels of atmospheric ammonia over India: Spatial and temporal analyses". Science of the Total Environment. 740: 139986. Bibcode:2020ScTEn.74039986K. doi:10.1016/j.scitotenv.2020.139986. ISSN 0048-9697. PMID 32927535. S2CID 221722300.
  264. ^ RWDI Consulting (2005). "Health and air quality 2005 – Phase 2: Valuation of health impacts from air quality in the lower Fraser Valley airshed" (PDF). Archived from the original (PDF) on 15 May 2011. Retrieved 29 August 2010.
  265. ^ UN Environment (11 October 2018). "Air pollution linked to "huge" reduction in intelligence". UN Environment. Retrieved 1 July 2019.
  266. ^ Lavy V, Rachkovski G, Yoresh O (2022). Heads Up: Does Air Pollution Cause Workplace Accidents? (Report). Cambridge, MA: National Bureau of Economic Research. doi:10.3386/w30715.
  267. ^ Smith A (12 February 2021). "Pollution on other planets could help us find aliens, Nasa says". The Independent. Archived from the original on 12 February 2021. Retrieved 6 March 2021.
  268. ^ "Can Alien Smog Lead Us to Extraterrestrial Civilizations?". Wired. Retrieved 6 March 2021.
  269. ^ Kopparapu R, Arney G, Haqq-Misra J, Lustig-Yaeger J, Villanueva G (22 February 2021). "Nitrogen Dioxide Pollution as a Signature of Extraterrestrial Technology". The Astrophysical Journal. 908 (2): 164. arXiv:2102.05027. Bibcode:2021ApJ...908..164K. doi:10.3847/1538-4357/abd7f7. ISSN 1538-4357. S2CID 231855390.
  270. ^ Chakrabarti S. "20th anniversary of world's worst industrial disaster". Australian Broadcasting Corporation.
  271. ^ Bell ML, Davis DL, Fletcher T (January 2004). "A Retrospective Assessment of Mortality from the London Smog Episode of 1952: The Role of Influenza and Pollution". Environ Health Perspect. 112 (1): 6–8. doi:10.1289/ehp.6539. PMC 1241789. PMID 14698923. S2CID 13045119.
  272. ^ Meselson M, Guillemin J, Hugh-Jones M (November 1994). "The Sverdlovsk anthrax outbreak of 1979" (PDF). Science. 266 (5188): 1202–08. Bibcode:1994Sci...266.1202M. doi:10.1126/science.7973702. PMID 7973702. Archived from the original (PDF) on 21 September 2006.
  273. ^ Davis D (2002). When Smoke Ran Like Water: Tales of Environmental Deception and the Battle Against Pollution. Basic Books. ISBN 978-0-465-01521-4.
  274. ^ Landrigan P (25 November 2016). "Air pollution and health". Lancet. 2 (1): E4–E5. doi:10.1016/S2468-2667(16)30023-8. PMID 29249479.
  275. ^ Camahan JV, Thurston DL (1998). "Trade-off Modeling for Product and Manufacturing Process Design for the Environment". Journal of Industrial Ecology. 2 (1): 79–92. Bibcode:1998JInEc...2...79C. doi:10.1162/jiec.1998.2.1.79. ISSN 1530-9290. S2CID 154730593.
  276. ^ Jacobson MZ, von Krauland AK, Coughlin SJ, Palmer FC, Smith MM (1 January 2022). "Zero air pollution and zero carbon from all energy at low cost and without blackouts in variable weather throughout the U.S. with 100% wind-water-solar and storage". Renewable Energy. 184: 430–442. Bibcode:2022REne..184..430J. doi:10.1016/j.renene.2021.11.067. ISSN 0960-1481. S2CID 244820608.
  277. ^ Gielen D, Boshell F, Saygin D, Bazilian MD, Wagner N, Gorini R (1 April 2019). "The role of renewable energy in the global energy transformation". Energy Strategy Reviews. 24: 38–50. Bibcode:2019EneSR..24...38G. doi:10.1016/j.esr.2019.01.006. ISSN 2211-467X. S2CID 135283552.
  278. ^ Burns J, Boogaard H, Polus S, Pfadenhauer LM, Rohwer AC, van-Erp AM, et al. (20 May 2019). "Interventions to Reduce Ambient Particulate Matter Air Pollution and Their Effect on Health". Cochrane Database of Systematic Reviews. 2019 (5): CD010919. doi:10.1002/14651858.CD010919.pub2. PMC 6526394. PMID 31106396.
  279. ^ Connolly K (30 August 2022). "Germany's €9 train tickets scheme 'saved 1.8m tons of CO2 emissions'". The Guardian. Retrieved 6 December 2022.
  280. ^ Fensterstock JC, Kurtzweg JA, Ozolins G (1971). "Reduction of Air Pollution Potential through Environmental Planning". Journal of the Air Pollution Control Association. 21 (7): 395–399. doi:10.1080/00022470.1971.10469547. PMID 5148260.
  281. ^ Fensterstock, Ketcham and Walsh, The Relationship of Land Use and Transportation Planning to Air Quality Management, Ed. George Hagevik, May 1972.
  282. ^ "The Importance of Development Plans/Land Use Policy for Development Control". www.oas.org. Retrieved 17 June 2022.
  283. ^ Kuttippurath J, Patel VK, Pathak M, Singh A (2022). "Improvements in SO2 pollution in India: role of technology and environmental regulations". Environmental Science and Pollution Research. 29 (52): 78637–78649. Bibcode:2022ESPR...2978637K. doi:10.1007/s11356-022-21319-2. ISSN 1614-7499. PMC 9189448. PMID 35696063. S2CID 249613744.
  284. ^ Palmer J (12 November 2011). "'Smog-Eating' Material Breaking into the Big Time". BBC News.
  285. ^ "Nanotechnology to gobble up pollution". BBC News. 15 May 2014. Retrieved 29 October 2014.
  286. ^ a b Jacobson MZ (2015). "100% clean and renewable wind, water, and sunlight (WWS) all-sector energy road maps for the 50 United States". Energy and Environmental Science. 8 (7): 2093–2117. doi:10.1039/C5EE01283J.
  287. ^ Krelling C, Badami MG (1 January 2022). "Cost-effectiveness analysis of compressed natural gas implementation in the public bus transit fleet in Delhi, India". Transport Policy. 115: 49–61. doi:10.1016/j.tranpol.2021.10.019. ISSN 0967-070X.
  288. ^ Landrigan PJ (1 January 2017). "Air pollution and health". The Lancet Public Health. 2 (1): e4–e5. doi:10.1016/S2468-2667(16)30023-8. ISSN 2468-2667. PMID 29249479.
  289. ^ Lyons TJ, Kenworthy JR, Newman PW (1 January 1990). "Urban structure and air pollution". Atmospheric Environment. Part B. Urban Atmosphere. 24 (1): 43–48. Bibcode:1990AtmEB..24...43L. doi:10.1016/0957-1272(90)90008-I. ISSN 0957-1272.
  290. ^ McVeigh K (28 September 2021). "'False choice': is deep-sea mining required for an electric vehicle revolution?". The Guardian. Retrieved 24 October 2021.
  291. ^ Opray M (24 August 2017). "Nickel mining: the hidden environmental cost of electric cars". The Guardian. Retrieved 24 October 2021.
  292. ^ "Los Angeles Airport Pollutes City Air For Miles Downwind". Chemical and Engineering news. 30 May 2014. Retrieved 13 December 2019.
  293. ^ "NASA Confirms Biofuels Reduce Jet Emissions". Flyingmag.com. 23 March 2017. Retrieved 11 January 2018.
  294. ^ "Interseasonal Heat Transfer – Seasonal Heat Storage – GSHC – Renewable Heat & Renewable Cooling from ThermalBanks – Efficient Renewable Energy – Hybrid Renewable Energy Systems". Icax.co.uk. Retrieved 11 January 2018.
  295. ^ Ahuja D, Tatsutani M (7 April 2009). "Sustainable energy for developing countries". S.A.P.I.EN.S (in French). 2 (1). ISSN 1993-3800.
  296. ^ Oyedepo SO (23 July 2012). "Energy and sustainable development in Nigeria: the way forward". Energy, Sustainability and Society. 2 (1): 15. Bibcode:2012ESusS...2...15O. doi:10.1186/2192-0567-2-15. ISSN 2192-0567. S2CID 40436190.
  297. ^ "Road Rubber". Sciencenetlinks.com Science Updates – Science NetLinks. Retrieved 11 January 2018.
  298. ^ Simeonova E (March 2018). "Congestion Pricing, Air Pollution and Children's Health". National Bureau of Environmental Research. Working Paper Series. doi:10.3386/w24410.
  299. ^ Academy S (16 April 2022). "Impact Of Air Pollution On The Environment". Samphina. Retrieved 18 June 2022.
  300. ^ "Subway air pollution damages passenger health". Chemistryworld.com. Retrieved 11 January 2018.
  301. ^ Singla S, Bansal D, Misra A, Raheja G (31 August 2018). "Towards an integrated framework for air quality monitoring and exposure estimation-a review". Environmental Monitoring and Assessment. 190 (9): 562. Bibcode:2018EMnAs.190..562S. doi:10.1007/s10661-018-6940-8. ISSN 1573-2959. PMID 30167891. S2CID 52135179.
  302. ^ Zarrar H, Dyo V (1 October 2023). "Drive-by Air Pollution Sensing Systems: Challenges and Future Directions". IEEE Sensors Journal. 23 (19): 23692–23703. Bibcode:2023ISenJ..2323692Z. doi:10.1109/JSEN.2023.3305779. hdl:10547/625961. S2CID 261152934.
  303. ^ Kaivonen S, Ngai EC (1 February 2020). "Real-time air pollution monitoring with sensors on city bus". Digital Communications and Networks. 6 (1): 23–30. doi:10.1016/j.dcan.2019.03.003. ISSN 2352-8648. S2CID 88485659.
  304. ^ Zhang R, Zhang Y, Lin H, Feng X, Fu TM, Wang Y (April 2020). "NOx Emission Reduction and Recovery during COVID-19 in East China". Atmosphere. 11 (4): 433. Bibcode:2020Atmos..11..433Z. doi:10.3390/atmos11040433. S2CID 219002558.
  305. ^ "Airborne Nitrogen Dioxide Plummets Over China". earthobservatory.nasa.gov. 28 February 2020. Archived from the original on 2 April 2020. Retrieved 6 April 2020.
  306. ^ "Analysis: Coronavirus temporarily reduced China's CO2 emissions by a quarter". Carbon Brief. 19 February 2020. Archived from the original on 4 March 2020. Retrieved 6 April 2020.
  307. ^ "New monitoring technologies can help cities combat air pollution". World Economic Forum. 15 April 2021. Retrieved 24 October 2021.
  308. ^ Yu T, Wang W, Ciren P, Sun R (18 October 2018). "An assessment of air-quality monitoring station locations based on satellite observations". International Journal of Remote Sensing. 39 (20): 6463–6478. Bibcode:2018IJRS...39.6463Y. doi:10.1080/01431161.2018.1460505. ISSN 0143-1161. S2CID 135457028.
  309. ^ "Pollution is Personal". The Atlantic. Retrieved 20 December 2021.
  310. ^ "World Air Map: Live air quality everywhere in the world". Plume Labs Air Report. Retrieved 20 December 2021.
  311. ^ "Live Animated Air Quality Map (AQI, PM2.5...) | AirVisual". IQAir. Retrieved 27 January 2022.
  312. ^ European Commission (11 May 2011). "European Commission - Environment - Air - Air quality". Archived from the original on 11 May 2011.
  313. ^ Canada Ea (10 September 2007). "About the Air Quality Health Index". Canada.ca. Retrieved 27 February 2022.
  314. ^ "Environment Canada – Air Quality". Ec.gc.ca. 10 September 2007. Retrieved 11 November 2011.
  315. ^ "Environment Canada – AQHI categories and explanations". Ec.gc.ca. 16 April 2008. Retrieved 11 November 2011.
  316. ^ "German TA-Luft is guaranteed by us". centrotherm clean solutions. Archived from the original on 29 June 2022. Retrieved 27 February 2022.
  317. ^ a b Europa (1996). "Summaries of EU legislation – Management and quality of ambient air". Retrieved 24 January 2015.
  318. ^ "PRESS RELEASE No 58/08 Judgment of the Court of Justice in Case C-237/07" (PDF). European Court of Justice. 2008. Retrieved 24 January 2015.
  319. ^ Overview of relevant case law and critical state of air pollution protection in the EU: Winfried Huck, Jennifer Maaß, Saparya Sood, Tahar Benmaghnia, Alexander Schulte, Sarah Heß and Marc-Anthony Walter, The Right to Breathe Clean Air and Access to Justice - Legal State of Play in International, European and National Law (2021) in 8(22) International Institutions: Transnational Networks eJournal, available at: http://dx.doi.org/10.2139/ssrn.3808572
  320. ^ European Commission. "Air quality: Commission sends final warning to UK over levels of fine particle pollution". Archived from the original on 11 May 2011. Retrieved 7 April 2011.
  321. ^ House of Commons Environmental Audit Committee (2010). "Environmental Audit Committee – Fifth Report Air Quality". Retrieved 24 January 2015.
  322. ^ a b Mulholland H (11 March 2011). "Britain fends off threat of £300m fine over London air pollution". The Guardian. Retrieved 24 January 2015.
  323. ^ "Every Breath You Take" (PDF). London Assembly Environment Committee. May 2009. Archived from the original (PDF) on 22 February 2015. Retrieved 22 February 2015.
  324. ^ BBC (6 December 2010). "Threat to sue over London congestion charge scrapping". BBC News. Retrieved 24 January 2015.
  325. ^ Risse-Kappen T (1995). Bringing transnational relations back in: non-state actors, domestic structures, and international institutions. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. pp. 3–34.
  326. ^ a b Pattberg P, Stripple J (2008). "Beyond the public and private divide: remapping transnational climate governance in the 21st century". International Environmental Agreements: Politics, Law and Economics. 8 (4): 367–388. Bibcode:2008IEAPL...8..367P. doi:10.1007/s10784-008-9085-3. S2CID 62890754.
  327. ^ Roman M (2010). "Governing from the middle: the C40 Cities Leadership Group". Corporate Governance. 10 (1): 73–84. doi:10.1108/14720701011021120.
  328. ^ "Tribes do their part to keep air clean. Now, they want to make sure pollution from afar doesn't put that at risk". USA TODAY. Retrieved 16 April 2024.
  329. ^ "Air pollution hot spot". Retrieved 24 April 2014.
  330. ^ Pettit D (14 December 2014). "Global Toll of Air Pollution: Over 3 Million Deaths Each Year". Switchboard NRDC. Archived from the original on 8 May 2014.
  331. ^ "Watch air pollution flow across the planet in real time". Science Magazine News. 28 November 2016.
  332. ^ a b Drury R, Belliveau M, Kuhn JS, Shipra B (Spring 1999). "Pollution Trading and Environmental Justice: Los Angeles' Failed Experiment in Air Pollution Policy". Duke Environmental Law & Policy Forum. 9 (231).
  333. ^ a b Morello-Frosch R, Zuk M, Jerrett M, Shamasunder B, Kyle AD (2011). "Understanding the Cumulative Impacts of Inequalities in Environmental Health: Implications for Policy". Health Affairs. 30 (5): 879–87. doi:10.1377/hlthaff.2011.0153. PMID 21555471.
  334. ^ Mohai P, Lantz P, Morenoff J, House J, Mero R (2009). "Racial and Socioeocnomic Disparities in Residential Proximity". American Journal of Public Health. 99 (3): S649–56. doi:10.2105/ajph.2007.131383. PMC 2774179. PMID 19890171.
  335. ^ Lerner S (2010). "Sacrifice Zones: The Front Lines of Toxic Chemical Exposure in the United States". Port Arthur, Texas: Public Housing Residents Breathe Contaminated Air from Nearby Refineries and Chemical Plants. MIT Press.
  336. ^ Vohra K, Marais EA, Bloss WJ, Schwartz J, Mickley LJ, Van Damme M, et al. (8 April 2022). "Rapid rise in premature mortality due to anthropogenic air pollution in fast-growing tropical cities from 2005 to 2018". Science Advances. 8 (14): eabm4435. Bibcode:2022SciA....8M4435V. doi:10.1126/sciadv.abm4435. ISSN 2375-2548. PMC 8993110. PMID 35394832.
  337. ^ Michelozzi P, Forastiere F, Fusco D, Perucci CA, Ostro B, Ancona C, et al. (1998). "Air Pollution and Daily Mortality in Rome, Italy". Occupational and Environmental Medicine. 55 (9): 605–10. doi:10.1136/oem.55.9.605. JSTOR 27730990. PMC 1757645. PMID 9861182.
  338. ^ The Daily Telegraph 8 January 2014 'Air pollution killing up to 500,000 Chinese each year, admits former health minister'.
  339. ^ "World's Most Polluted Cities in 2020 - PM2.5 Ranking | AirVisual". www.iqair.com. Retrieved 1 February 2022.
  340. ^ "World Air Quality Index (AQI) Ranking | IQAir". www.iqair.com. Retrieved 24 May 2022.
  341. ^ Darame M (29 November 2019). "En Afrique de l'Ouest, une pollution mortelle mais d'ampleur inconnue" [In West Africa, deadly pollution but of unknown magnitude]. Le Monde (in French).
  342. ^ Organisation for Economic Co-operation and Development (1 March 2012). "Environmental Outlook to 2050 - OECD" (PDF). OECD.

Further reading

[edit]
  • Brimblecombe P (1987). The Big Smoke: A History of Air Pollution in London Since Medieval Times. Routledge. ISBN 978-1-136-70329-4.
  • Brimblecombe P (1995). "1: History of air pollution". In Singh H (ed.). Composition, chemistry, and climate of the atmosphere. New York: John Wiley & Sons. pp. 1–18. ISBN 978-0-471-28514-4. OCLC 43084000.
  • Brimblecombe P, Makra L (2005). "Selections from the history of environmental pollution, with special attention to air pollution. Part 2*: From medieval times to the 19th century". International Journal of Environment and Pollution. 23 (4): 351–67. doi:10.1504/ijep.2005.007599.
  • Cherni, Judith A. Economic Growth versus the Environment: The Politics of Wealth, Health and Air Pollution (2002) online
  • Corton, Christine L. London Fog: The Biography (2015)
  • Currie, Donya. "WHO: Air Pollution a Continuing Health Threat in World's Cities", The Nation's Health (February 2012) 42#1 online
  • Dewey, Scott Hamilton. Don't Breathe the Air: Air Pollution and US Environmental Politics, 1945–1970 (Texas A & M University Press, 2000)
  • Gonzalez, George A. The politics of air pollution: Urban growth, ecological modernization, and symbolic inclusion (SUNY Press, 2012)
  • Grinder RD (1978). "From Insurgency to Efficiency: The Smoke Abatement Campaign in Pittsburgh before World War I.". Western Pennsylvania Historical Magazine. 61 (3): 187–202.
  • Grinder, Robert Dale. "The Battle for Clean Air: The Smoke Problem in Post-Civil War America" in Martin V. Melosi, ed., Pollution & Reform in American Cities, 1870–1930 (1980), pp. 83–103.
  • Kumar P, Pirjola L, Ketzel M, Harrison RM (2013). "Nanoparticle emissions from 11 non-vehicle exhaust sources – A review". Atmospheric Environment. 67. Elsevier BV: 252–277. Bibcode:2013AtmEn..67..252K. doi:10.1016/j.atmosenv.2012.11.011. ISSN 1352-2310.
  • Lundqvist LJ (1980). The Hare and the Tortoise: Clean Air Policy in the US and Sweden. Ann Arbor, MI: University of Michigan Press. ISBN 978-0-472-09310-6.
  • Mingle, Jonathan, "Our Lethal Air" [review of Gary Fuller, The Invisible Killer...; Beth Gardiner, Choked...; Tim Smedley, Clearing the Air...; U.S. Environmental Protection Agency, Integrated Science Assessment for Particulate Matter (External Review Draft, 2018); and Chartered Clean Air Scientific Advisory Committee, Letter to EPA Administrator on the EPA's Integrated Science Assessment for Particulate Matter, 11 April 2019], The New York Review of Books, vol. LXVI, no. 14 (26 September 2019), pp. 64–66, 68. "Today, 91 percent of people worldwide live in areas where air pollution levels exceed the World Health Organization's recommended limits. ... [T]here is no safe level of exposure to fine particulate matter. ... Most of these fine particles are a by-product of ... burning ... coal, gasoline, diesel, wood, trash ... These particles can get past the defenses of our upper airways to penetrate deep into our lungs and reach the alveoli ... From there, they cross into the bloodstream and spread throughout the body. They can travel through the nose, up the olfactory nerve, and lodge ... in the brain. They can form deposits on the lining of arteries, constricting blood vessels and raising the likelihood of ... strokes and heart attacks. [T]hey exacerbate respiratory illnesses like asthma and chronic obstructive pulmonary disease ... There's ... evidence linking air pollution exposure to an increased risk of Alzheimer's and other forms of dementia." (p. 64.)
  • Mosley, Stephen. The chimney of the world: a history of smoke pollution in Victorian and Edwardian Manchester. Routledge, 2013.
  • Schreurs, Miranda A. Environmental Politics in Japan, Germany, and the United States (Cambridge University Press, 2002) online
  • Thorsheim, Peter. Inventing Pollution: Coal, Smoke, and Culture in Britain since 1800 (2009)
[edit]
  • WHO fact sheet on outdoor air pollution
  • Air Pollution: Everything You Need to Know Guide by the Natural Resources Defense Council (NRDC)
  • Global real-time air quality index map
  • Air Quality Index (AQI) Basics
  • AQI Calculator AQI to Concentration and Concentration to AQI for five pollutants
  • UNEP Urban environmental planning
  • European Commission > Environment > Air > Air Quality
  • Database: outdoor air pollution in cities from the World Health Organization
  • The Mortality Effects of Long-Term Exposure to Particulate Air Pollution in the United Kingdom, UK Committee on the Medical Effects of Air Pollution, 2010.
  • Hazardous air pollutants | What are hazardous pollutants at EPA.gov

 

Photo
Photo
Photo
Photo
Photo

Driving Directions in Tulsa County


Driving Directions From Waffle House to Durham Supply Inc
Driving Directions From Country Inn & Suites by Radisson, Tulsa, OK to Durham Supply Inc
Driving Directions From Catoosa to Durham Supply Inc
Driving Directions From Oakwood Homes to Durham Supply Inc
Driving Directions From Tulsa VA Behavioral Medicine Clinic to Durham Supply Inc
Driving Directions From OkieTundra to Durham Supply Inc
Driving Directions From Tulsa Zoo to Durham Supply Inc
Driving Directions From Bob Dylan Center to Durham Supply Inc
Driving Directions From The Tulsa Arts District to Durham Supply Inc
Driving Directions From Guthrie Green to Durham Supply Inc
Driving Directions From The Cave House to Durham Supply Inc

Reviews for Durham Supply Inc


Durham Supply Inc

Ty Spears

(5)

Bought a door/storm door combo. Turns out it was the wrong size. They swapped it out, quick and easy no problems. Very helpful in explaining the size differences from standard door sizes.

Durham Supply Inc

Ethel Schiller

(5)

This place is really neat, if they don't have it they can order it from another of their stores and have it there overnight in most cases. Even hard to find items for a trailer! I definitely recommend this place to everyone! O and the prices is awesome too!

Durham Supply Inc

Gerald Clifford Brewster

(5)

We will see, the storm door I bought says on the tag it's 36x80, but it's 34x80. If they return it.......they had no problems returning it. And it was no fault of there's, you measure a mobile home door different than a standard door!

Durham Supply Inc

Dennis Champion

(5)

Durham supply and Royal supply seems to find the most helpful and friendly people to work in their stores, we are based out of Kansas City out here for a few remodels and these guys treated us like we've gone there for years.

Durham Supply Inc

B Mann

(5)

I was in need of some items for a double wide that I am remodeling and this place is the only place in town that had what I needed ( I didn't even try the other rude place )while I was there I learned the other place that was in Tulsa that also sold mobile home supplies went out of business (no wonder the last time I was in there they were VERY RUDE and high priced) I like the way Dunham does business they answered all my questions and got me the supplies I needed, very friendly, I will be back to purchase the rest of my items when the time comes.

View GBP

Frequently Asked Questions

When evaluating financing packages, consider the interest rates, loan terms (length of repayment), total cost over time, any fees or penalties for early repayment, and eligibility requirements. Additionally, assess whether the package is specifically designed for mobile home HVAC systems to ensure it meets your needs.
To determine affordability, calculate your monthly payments based on the interest rate and loan term. Compare this amount to your monthly budget to see if you can comfortably afford it without compromising other financial obligations. It’s also advisable to evaluate the total cost of the loan over its lifetime to ensure youre getting a good deal.
Yes, there may be special programs or incentives such as government grants, energy efficiency rebates, or low-interest loans targeted at improving energy efficiency in mobile homes. Its worthwhile to research local utility company offerings and federal or state programs that could provide financial assistance or incentives specifically for upgrading to an efficient HVAC system in a mobile home.